5/ 5

<h2><strong>Yuzu Seeds Japanese citrus fruit -20°C (Citrus junos)</strong></h2> <h2><span style="color: #ff0000;"><strong>Price for Package of 2 or 4 seeds.</strong></span></h2> <p>The fruit looks somewhat like a small grapefruit with an uneven skin, and can be either yellow or green depending on the degree of ripeness. It is hardy to <strong>-20C.</strong></p> <p>Yuzu limes are small to medium in size, averaging 5-10 centimeters in diameter, and are round, oblate, to slightly lopsided in shape. The peel is thick, pebbly, rough, pocked with many prominent oil glands and pores, and matures from dark green to golden yellow. Underneath the peel, the yellow flesh is minimal, divided into 9-10 segments by white membranes, contains some juice, and is filled with many large, inedible cream-colored seeds. Yuzu limes are highly aromatic, and the rind is rich in essential oils that are released when the fruit’s surface is scratched or cut. The juice and zest also have a unique, acidic blend of sour, tart, and spicy flavors with notes of lime, grapefruit, mandarin. <br /><br /></p> <h2>Seasons/Availability</h2> <p><br />Yuzu limes are available in the winter through the early spring. <br /><br /></p> <h2>Current Facts</h2> <p><br />Yuzu limes, botanically classified as Citrus junos, are slow-growing citrus that are found on an evergreen tree or shrub that can reach over five meters in height and belongs to the Rutaceae family. Believed to be a hybrid between the satsuma mandarin and the ichang papeda, Yuzu limes are not botanically a lime but have earned the title since they are often prepared and used similarly. Yuzu limes are mainly cultivated in China, Japan, and Korea and are favored for their tart and spicy juice and zest. They are also valued for their strong fragrance and in Japan, it is one of the most popular scents to be used for cosmetics, candles, cleaning supplies, and bath products. While popular in Asia, Yuzu limes are still relatively unknown in the Western world, but they have been gaining awareness through famous chefs praising and using its unique flavor. <br /><br /></p> <h2>Nutritional Value</h2> <p><br />Yuzu limes are an excellent source of potassium and vitamin C. They also contain flavonoids, vitamin P which can help absorb other nutrients and increase circulation, and nomilin, which can help aid the body in relaxation. <br /><br /></p> <h2>Applications</h2> <p><br />Yuzu limes are best suited for both raw and cooked applications and are used for their juice and zest. When juiced, Yuzu limes can be mixed into sauces, vinegar, dressings, and marinades, or they can be shaken into cocktails, flavored water, and tea. Yuzu lime peels can also be used to flavor salted butter for seafood dishes, zested over salad or sashimi, used to flavor ponzu sauce, or ground into powdered form and sprinkled over dishes as a concentrated flavor. In addition to savory dishes, Yuzu lime juice and zest can be baked into tarts or pies, mixed into sorbets, or used in custard. Yuzu limes pair well with coriander, mint, eggs, sashimi, scallops, grilled fish, snow crab, poultry, steak, pork, pepper, black sesame seeds, cumin, lime, raspberry, pomegranate, and cherries. The fruits will keep two weeks when stored in the refrigerator. <br /><br /></p> <h2>Ethnic/Cultural Info</h2> <p><br />In Japan, the Yuzu lime is one of the most popular fragrances and is most well-known for its use in the winter solstice bath. Each year during the winter solstice, public bathhouses will slice the fruit in half and float them in hot water, creating an aromatic experience. This bathing practice dates back to the 18th century and soaking in Yuzu water is believed to help prevent sicknesses such as flu and colds, and the essential oils and vitamin C are believed to help soften the skin and relieve pain. In addition to bathing, the Yuzu fragrance is also utilized in Yuzu tama or Yuzu egg production. On the island of Shikoku, Japan, farmers feed their hens a mixture of Yuzu peel, sesame seeds, corn, and kale to naturally create an egg that has the flavor and scent of the Yuzu lime. These eggs are sold at a premium price and are traditionally used for tamago kake gohan, which is cooked rice with a raw egg mixed in. <br /><br /></p> <h2>Geography/History</h2> <p><br />The origins of Yuzu limes are somewhat disputed among scientists, but the majority of scientists conclude that the fruit’s origins are within the upper regions of the Yangtze River in China and have been growing since ancient times. Yuzu limes were then introduced to Japan in 710 CE where they became increasingly popular for their light scent. In 1914, Frank Meyer, the man who discovered the Meyer lemon, visited China and brought seeds from the Yuzu fruit back to the United States. Included in his description of the fruit, he noted that he sourced the seeds from the Hubei Provence along the upper slopes of the Yangtze River at an astonishing elevation of 4,000 feet. The temperatures dip below freezing in that area, and there are no other citrus varieties that grow near the region. Today Yuzu limes are predominately available at local markets in Asia, but there are also a few farms in the United States that commercially cultivate the fruit and sell at farmers markets and specialty grocers</p> <script src="//cdn.public.n1ed.com/G3OMDFLT/widgets.js"></script>

V 118 Y (2 S)

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<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <h2><strong>Maypop, Purple Passionflower Seeds (Passiflora incarnata)</strong></h2> <h2><span style="color: #ff0000;"><strong>Price for Package of 5 seeds.</strong></span></h2> <p><strong>In the genus Passiflora, it is the most resistant species to cold after Yellow passionflower, and its roots can reach up to -20 degrees and the plant that dies in winter can return to life in this way.</strong></p> <p>Passiflora incarnata, commonly known as maypop, purple passionflower, true passionflower, wild apricot, and wild passion vine, is a fast-growing perennial vine with climbing or trailing stems. A member of the passionflower genus Passiflora, the maypop has large, intricate flowers with prominent styles and stamens. One of the hardiest species of passionflower, it is a common wildflower in the southern United States. The Cherokee in the Tennessee area called it ocoee; the Ocoee River and valley are named after this plant, which is the Tennessee state wildflower.[1] This, and other passionflowers are the exclusive larval host plants for the Gulf fritillary and non-exclusive for the variegated fritillary butterflies.</p> <p>The stems can be smooth or pubescent; they are long and trailing, possessing many tendrils. Leaves are alternate and palmately 3-lobed and occasionally 5-lobed, measuring 6–15 centimetres (2.4–5.9 in). They have two characteristic glands at the base of the blade on the petiole. Flowers have five bluish-white petals. They exhibit a white and purple corona, a structure of fine appendages between the petals and stamens. The large flower is typically arranged in a ring above the petals and sepals. They are pollinated by insects such as bumblebees and carpenter bees, and are self-sterile. The flower normally blooms in July.</p> <p>The fleshy fruit, also referred to as a maypop, is an oval yellowish berry about the size of a hen egg; it is green at first, but then becomes orange as it matures. As with other passifloras, it is the larval food of a number of butterfly species, including the zebra longwing and Gulf fritillary. In many cases its fruit is very popular with wildlife. The egg-shaped green fruits 'may pop' when stepped on. This phenomenon gives the P. incarnata its common name.</p> <p>The maypop occurs in thickets, disturbed areas, near riverbanks, and near unmowed pastures, roadsides, and railroads. It thrives in areas with lots of available sunlight. It is not found in shady areas beneath a forest canopy.</p> <p><strong>Culinary use</strong></p> <p>In cooking, the fruit of this variety is sometimes used for jam and jellies or as a substitute for its commercially grown South American relative Passiflora edulis – the fruit is of comparable size and juice yield, hence chilled maypop juice is a delicious treat in hot summer weather. The fruit can be eaten out of hand and historically it was a favorite of colonial settlers of the South and Native Americans alike. Today it is a very common plant growing in gardens in the American Southeast and parts of the Mid-Atlantic for this purpose as well as its showy violet flowers,[17] and still is a favorite of Cajuns, as evidenced by their name for the plant: liane de grenade, or "pomegranate vine".</p> <p><strong>Medicinal use</strong></p> <p><strong>Efficacy</strong></p> <p>One review found support for P. incarnata in anxiety disorders. Other review found the evidence insufficient to make any claims about health effects.</p> <p><strong>Interactions</strong></p> <p>Possible interactions with following medications:</p> <p><strong>Sedatives</strong></p> <p>Antiplatelets and anticoagulants</p> <p>Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)</p> <p>P. incarnata may increase main effects or side effects of medications listed above.</p> <p>Pregnant or breast-feeding women should not use P. incarnata. The effects of the plant compounds on reproduction or on unborn child have not been tested yet. The consumption of this plant may prejudice the ability to drive and use machinery.</p> <p><strong>Historical uses and folk medicine</strong></p> <p>Historically, the plant been used as a herbal medicine to treat nervous anxiety and insomnia.[11] The dried, ground herb is frequently used in Europe by drinking a teaspoon of it in tea. A sedative chewing gum has even been produced albeit no sedative qualities have been noted, nor medical benefits beyond placebo.</p> <p>P. incarnata has been used to reduce hypertension. Methanol extractions from the leaves has been reported to be an effective antitussive in mice.</p> <p>After being brought to Europe, it became a popular remedy in herbology as a natural remedy for the relief of mild symptoms of mental stress, anxiety nervousness, constipation, dispepsia, mild infections and insomnia. "Today, passionflower is officially included in the national pharmacopeias of France, Germany, and Switzerland and is also monographed in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia and the British Herbal Compendium, the ESCOP monographs, the Community Herbal Monographs of the EMA, the German Standard Licences, the German Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia, the Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia of the United States, and the Pharmacopeia of Egypt. In Poland, it has been prescribed to cure disorders such as hysteria and neurasthenia. Presently, P. incarnata is commonly used in phytotherapy as a mild sedative and anxiolytic. The botanical drugs included in the current European and British Pharmacopoeias are the dried aerial parts of the plant".</p> <p>In North America it is used for the treatment of diarrhea, premenstrual syndrome, dysmenorrhea, neuralgia, burns, hemorrhoids, insomnia, muscle cramps, hysteria, neuralgia, and as a pain reliever for various conditions. P. incarnata is still used by Native Americans, for example Cherokees use the root of the plant as topical antiinflammatory medicine. Tea made from the roots is used as a tonic for the liver and for skin boils. The extracts of P. incarnata were also used for the relief of nervousness, abdominal cramps and anxiety.</p> <p>In other parts of the world, P. incarnata is used for the treatment of partially different diseases. For example, in Argentina and Mexico, it is consumed for its sedative effects, whereas in Brazil it is used as an analgesic, antispasmodic, anti-asthmatic, wormicidal and sedative. In India however, it has been used to treat morphine dependence, but in Vietnam sleeplessness, anxiety and high blood pressure have been treated with extracts from this plant. In the Middle East P. incarnata has again slightly different applications, for example in Turkey, dysmenorrhoea, epilepsy, insomnia, neurosis and neuralgia are treated with P. incarnata. But it has also been used as a sedative and narcotic medicine in Iraq. "In the African countries of Rwanda, Kenya and Congo P. incarnata is used as a folk remedy by herbalists and natural health practitioners for its sedative, nervine, anti-spasmodic and analgesic effects. In Australia, it is commonly prescribed as a sedative and anxiolytic medicine .</p> <p><strong>Substances</strong></p> <p>Some notable substances in P. incarnata are flavonoids, but also alkaloids and other phyto-constituents can be found.</p> <p>Flavonoids are the main component in P. incarnata. They can reach up to 2.5% of the total content. The greatest concentration of flavonoids has been reported to be in the leaves. Following flavonoids can be found in P. incarnata: chrysin, apigenin, luteolin, quercetin, kaempferol and isovitexin.[14] The flavonoid chrysin is thought to be the main substance responsible for the sedative effect of P. incarnata. The anxiety-reducing property is caused by the binding of chrysin to GABA-Benzodiazepinreceptors.[15] Little amounts of alkaloids has been reported in P. incarnata (&lt;0.005%). Examples for alkaloids are: harmol, harmine, harmalol.[14] Other substances existing in P. incarnata includes mono- and polysaccharides, amino acids and essential oils.</p> <p><strong>Cultivation</strong></p> <p><strong>Weediness</strong></p> <p>P. incarnata can potentially become an agricultural weed. The gender Passiflora introduced for agricultural purpose has been reported as an important weed in certain regions of the world.[18] This plant is listed as invasive by the Department of Agriculture of the United-States according to these two authoritative sources:[19] Weeds of Kentucky and adjacent states: a field guide[20] and Weeds of the United States and Canada.</p> <p>Mechanical control as removing the suckers regularly is advised to prevent the spreading of maypop. It is also recommended to train the vines onto trellis and fences to limit propagation.</p> <p><strong>Other potential use</strong></p> <p>P. incarnata extracts can be potentially used to produce organic sunscreens with a protective defense against UV radiations. The use of these plant compounds would diminish the concentration of synthetic UV filters in sunscreens.</p>

V 18 PI

5/ 5

<h2><strong>Ornamental Pink Pampas Grass Seeds (Cortaderia Selloana)</strong></h2><h2><span style="color: #ff0000;" data-mce-style="color: #ff0000;"><strong>Price for Package of 15 seeds.</strong></span></h2><div><div>Tall, pink-flushed, feathery plumes in late summer above large mounds of sharp-edged, mid-green leaves. This unusual pink form of pampas grass looks wonderful planted by water or set in the middle of a sunny, well-drained lawn. They generally bloom a week or two earlier than the white variety.</div><div>The real show starts in midsummer when the flowers, spectacular 30cm (12in) tall plumes, suddenly erupt above the foliage. The show continues well into winter as the feathery plumes persist and the foliage turns golden brown when touched by frost and cold weather.</div><div>Impressive size, graceful aspect, durable toughness, and spectacular flowers all combine to make pampas grass one of the most recognized plants in the landscape. The leaves are narrow and arranged in dense fountain like clumps.</div><div>Female plants have wider, fuller flowers - the males' are thinner, more elongated and not as full. This garden beauty commands attention wherever it is used.</div><div>Aftercare:</div><div>Fertilizing ornamental grasses can result in over-lush growth and unmanageability. Don't be disappointed if your young plant does not have plumes for the first two or three years. When established plants do not form plumes, it is usually because they have been over watered or fed too heavily, which would tend to stimulate foliage growth instead of plumes.</div><div>&nbsp;</div><div>Cultivation:</div><div>Pampas grass grows well on a range of soil types but thrives in a fertile, well-drained soil in full sun. After time the tussocks can become very large and congested with old, dead foliage. Cutting back and combing regularly in late winter or spring should minimise the dead foliage and keep the tussock compact. Because of its sharp leaf margins pampas grass was commonly burnt in its native habitat to control its spread, but in the garden burning can be dangerous not only for the gardener but because pampas grass is a favorite place for hedgehogs to hibernate.</div><div>Drying:</div><div>Pampas Grass can be dried and make interesting focal or secondary flowers in dried arrangements. To dry, cut the flower at the height of bloom and hang upside down in a cool, dark place to dry.</div><div>Plant Uses: &nbsp;</div><div>Architectural, Cottage/Informal Garden, Drought Resistant, Flower Arranging, Flowers Borders and Beds, Low Maintenance or Mediterranean.</div><div>Hardy Perennial.</div><div>oliage: &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Strap like, 2cm (3/4in) wide, to 1m (3ft) long.</div><div>Flowers: &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Pale pink plumes up to 2.5m (8ft)</div><div>Plant Height: &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;1m (36in)</div><div>Plant Spread: &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;1m (36in)</div><div>Position: &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Full Sun to light shade</div><div>Soil: &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Prefers fertile well-drained loamy soils</div></div><div><table class="mce-item-table" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0"><tbody><tr><td class="bucket normal"><div class="content"><ul><li><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;">BLOOM TIME: Late Summer</span></li><li><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;">HARDINESS ZONE: 7 - 10</span></li><li><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;">PLANT HEIGHT: 96 - 144" . . . PLANT SPACING: 24 - 36"</span></li><li><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;">LIGHT REQUIREMENTS: Sun - Part Shade . . . SOIL / WATER: Average - Dry</span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div>&nbsp;</div><table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="1"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" width="100%" valign="top"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;"><strong>Sowing Instructions</strong></span></p></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;"><strong>Propagation:</strong></span></p></td><td valign="top"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;">Seeds</span></p></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;"><strong>Pretreat:</strong></span></p></td><td valign="top"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;">0</span></p></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;"><strong>Stratification:</strong></span></p></td><td valign="top"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;">0</span></p></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;"><strong>Sowing Time:</strong></span></p></td><td valign="top"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;">all year round</span></p></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;"><strong>Sowing Depth:</strong></span></p></td><td valign="top"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;">Needs Light to germinate! Just sprinkle on the surface of the substrate + gently press</span></p></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;"><strong>Sowing Mix:</strong></span></p></td><td valign="top"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;">Coir or sowing mix + sand or perlite</span></p></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;"><strong>Germination temperature:</strong></span></p></td><td valign="top"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;">20 - 25 ° C</span></p></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;"><strong>Location:</strong></span></p></td><td valign="top"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;">bright + keep constantly moist not wet</span></p></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;"><strong>Germination Time:</strong></span></p></td><td valign="top"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;">until it germinates&nbsp;</span></p></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;"><strong>Watering:</strong></span></p></td><td valign="top"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;">Water regularly during the growing season</span></p></td></tr><tr><td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"><p><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;"><strong>&nbsp;</strong></span></p></td><td valign="top"><p><br><span style="color: #008000;" data-mce-style="color: #008000;"><em>Copyright © 2012 Seeds Gallery - Saatgut Galerie - Galerija semena.&nbsp;</em><em>All Rights Reserved.</em></span></p></td></tr></tbody></table>

UT 6 P

5/ 5

<h2><strong>Giant Onion Seeds - Globemaster (Allium Giganteum)</strong></h2> <h2><span style="color:#ff0000;"><strong> Price for Package of 10 seeds.</strong></span></h2> <p>These flowers are absolutely huge! They measure a whopping 6 - 8" wide! This variety of Allium makes an excellent dried flower. They are also a favorite of bees.</p> <p><strong>Wikipedia:</strong></p> <p>Allium giganteum, also known as Giant Onion, is a perennial bulbous plant of the onion genus, used as a flowering garden plant, and growing to 2 metres. It is the tallest ornamental Allium in common cultivation. In early to midsummer, small globes of intense purple flower heads (umbels) appear, followed by attractive seed heads. A popular cultivar, 'Globemaster', is shorter (80 centimetres (31 in)) but produces much bigger, deep violet, flower heads (15–20 centimetres (5.9–7.9 in)). Both varieties have been granted the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.</p> <p>NAME: Giant Allium ‘Globemaster’</p> <p>SCIENTIFIC NAME: Allium Giganteum</p> <p>COLOR: Purple 6 - 8” round flower heads</p> <p>PLANT SEEDS: Outdoors after frost / Indoors weeks before last frost</p> <p>BLOOM TIME: Late Spring - Mid Summer</p> <p>HARDINESS ZONE: 4 - 9</p> <p>PLANT HEIGHT: 36 - 48”</p> <p>PLANT SPACING: 12 - 15”</p> <p>LIGHT REQUIREMENTS: Sun</p> <p>SOIL &amp; WATER PREFERENCES: Average</p> <p><strong>Propagation:</strong></p> <p>Always use sterilized planting soil.</p> <p>Moisten planting media, place the fine seeds on the soil and cover them lightly.</p> <p>Stratify the seeds by placing the pot in a plastic bag at approx. 5°C.</p> <p>After 3-4 weeks place the pot to germination temperature, approx. 15°C.</p> <p>Within 1-? months the seeds will germinate, germination can be very slow.</p>

MHS 31

5/ 5

<h2><strong>Tamarind Seeds (Tamarindus indica)</strong></h2> <h2><span style="color: #ff0000;"><strong>Price for Package of 5 seeds.</strong></span></h2> <div>The tamarind is a long-lived, medium-growth, bushy tree which attains a maximum crown height of 12.1 to 18.3 metres (40 to 60 feet). The crown has an irregular, vase-shaped outline of dense foliage. The tree grows well in full sun in clay, loam, sandy, and acidic soil types, with high drought and aerosol salt (wind-borne salt as found in the coastal area) resistance.</div> <div>Leaves are evergreen, bright green in colour, an elliptical ovular, arrangement is alternate, of the pinnately compound type, with pinnate venation and less than 5 cm (2 inches) in length. The branches droop from a single, central trunk as the tree matures and is often pruned in human agriculture to optimize tree density and ease of fruit harvest. At night, the leaflets close up.</div> <div>The tamarind does flower, though inconspicuously, with red and yellow elongated flowers. Flowers are 2.5 cm wide (one inch), five-petalled, borne in small racemes, and yellow with orange or red streaks. Buds are pink as the four sepals are pink and are lost when the flower blooms.</div> <div>The fruit is an indehiscent legume, sometimes called a pod, 12 to 15 cm (3 to 6 inches) in length, with a hard, brown shell.The fruit has a fleshy, juicy, acidulous pulp. It is mature when the flesh is coloured brown or reddish-brown. The tamarinds of Asia have longer pods containing six to 12 seeds, whereas African and West Indian varieties have short pods containing one to six seeds. The seeds are somewhat flattened, and glossy brown.</div> <div>The tamarind is best described as sweet and sour in taste, and is high in acid, sugar, B vitamins and, interestingly for a fruit, calcium.</div> <div>As a tropical species, it is frost sensitive. The pinnate leaves with opposite leaflets give a billowing effect in the wind. Tamarind timber consists of hard, dark red heartwood and softer, yellowish sapwood.</div> <div>Tamarind is harvested by pulling the pod from its stalk. A mature tree may be capable of producing up to 175 kg (350 lb) of fruit per year</div> <div>Care:</div> <div>Soil:</div> <div>The tree tolerates clay, silt, sand, and acid soils with high drought and salt air.</div> <div>Exposure:</div> <div>Full sun.</div> <div>Water:</div> <div>Water regularly. Although the tree is drought resistant, it will drop its leaves after a prolonged drought.</div> <div>Fertilizer:</div> <div>Young trees: every 2-3 months with 6-6-3 NPK.</div> <div>Older, fruit-bearing trees: 3-4 times per year with 8-3-9 NPK</div> <div>Propagation:</div> <div>From seed. Only the large brown seeds from fresh, ripe pods are viable. The seeds maintain their viability 3-4 years on condition that they kept are in a dry box.</div> <div>Sowing instructions:</div> <div>scarify the seeds or boil them for 30 minutes in water at 100 °C and plunge them in a cold bath to stop the heating. Both procedures provide better water absorption by the seed and increase the germination rate to about 95% by breaking down the hard shell.</div> <div>plant the seeds in a light mix, in high containers (a deep taproot develops early on)</div> <div>mist the substrate so that it is damp, not wet</div> <div>cover the pots to prevent evaporation</div> <div>20-25 °C (68-77 °F)</div> <div>germination time: 7-10 days</div> <div>protect the seedlings from direct sunlight until they are at least 30 cm (1′) high</div> <div>be careful when transplanting, the roots do not tolerate damage</div> <div> <table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="1"> <tbody> <tr> <td colspan="2" width="100%" valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Sowing Instructions</strong></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Propagation:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;">Seeds</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Pretreat:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;">pour hot water + soak about 24-48 hrs</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Stratification:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;">0</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Sowing Time:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;">all year round</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Sowing Depth:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;">1 cm</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Sowing Mix:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;">Coir or sowing mix + sand or perlite</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Germination temperature:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;">25-28 ° C</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Location:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;">bright + keep constantly moist not wet</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Germination Time:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;">2-4 Weeks</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Watering:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;">Water regularly during the growing season</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong> </strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><br /><span style="color: #008000;"><em>Copyright © 2012 Seeds Gallery - Saatgut Galerie - Galerija semena. </em><em>All Rights Reserved.</em><em></em></span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> <div><span style="color: #008000;">Winter: Older specimens light at about 5-10 ° C, and only so much water that the root ball does not dry out completely. Freezing temperatures can be tolerated for a short time!</span></div>

V 62 (5 S)

5/ 5

<h2><strong>Pitaya, Dragon Fruit Seeds (Hylocereus undatus)</strong></h2> <h2 class=""><span style="color: #ff0a0a;"><strong>Price for Package of 20 or 100 seeds.</strong></span></h2> <div>DRAGON FRUIT.   Truly one of God's wonders!</div> <div>Pitaya Fruit, Pitahaya Fruit or commonly known as the Dragon fruit is among the most nutritious and wonderful exotic fruits. It is a favorite to many, particularly people of Asian origin. It features a mouth watering light sweet taste, an intense shape and color, not forgetting its outstanding flowers. In addition to being tasty and refreshing, this beautiful fruit boasts of a lot of water and other vital minerals with varied nutritional ingredients.</div> <div>Round, often red colored fruit with prominent scales. The thin rind encloses the large mass of sweetly flavored white or red pulp and small black seeds. Dragon fruits have fleshy stems reaching from a few inches up to 20ft long (in mature plants).  Flowers are ornate and beautiful, and many related species are propagated as ornamentals. Pitahaya plants can have up to 4-6 fruiting cycles per year.</div> <div>Family: Cactaceae family</div> <div>Origin: Mexico and South America</div> <div>Dragon fruit plant is a night flowering vine-like cactus, the beautiful yellowish flower is about 1 foot long and 9 inches wide, bell shaped and very fragrant, they open during the early evening and wilt by daybreak. The fruit is oblong and has unique appearance because of its bright pink to red, green tipped overlapping scales rind. The edible portion is white or red, with hundreds of tiny black seeds. Its taste is sweet and juicy similar to that of pear, kiwi and watermelon. Dragon fruit is now grown commercially in Asia in places like Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam.</div> <div>Health Benefits:</div> <div>Dragon fruit help to lower blood glucose levels in type 2 diabetes.</div> <div>Dragon fruit prevent formation of cancer causing free radicals.</div> <div>Dragon fruit helps moisturize and smoothen skin and decrease bad cholesterol level.</div> <div>Dragon fruit helps improve appetite.</div> <div>Dragon fruit can enhance the body metabolism because of its protein content.</div> <div>Dragon fruit helps improve digestion and reduce fat.</div> <div>Dragon fruit helps maintain the health of the eyes.</div> <div>Dragon fruit helps strengthen the bones and teeth.</div> <div>Dragon fruit helps in tissue development.</div> <div>Dragon fruit promotes healing of cuts and bruise.</div> <div>Dragon fruit helps improve memory.</div> <div> <table cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="1"> <tbody> <tr> <td colspan="2" width="100%" valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Sowing Instructions</strong></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Propagation:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;">Seeds / Cuttings</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Pretreat:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;">0</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Stratification:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;">0</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Sowing Time:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;">all year round</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Sowing Depth:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;">Light germinator! Just sprinkle on the surface of the substrate + gently press</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Sowing Mix:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;">Coir or sowing mix + sand or perlite</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Germination temperature:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"> about 25-28 ° C</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Location:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;">bright + keep constantly moist not wet</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Germination Time:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"> 2-4 Weeks</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong>Watering:</strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><span style="color: #008000;">Water regularly during the growing season</span></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td valign="top" nowrap="nowrap"> <p><span style="color: #008000;"><strong> </strong></span></p> </td> <td valign="top"> <p><br /><span style="color: #008000;">Copyright © 2012 Seeds Gallery - Saatgut Galerie - Galerija semena. All Rights Reserved.</span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> <script src="//cdn.public.n1ed.com/G3OMDFLT/widgets.js"></script>

V 12 W (20 S)

5/ 5

<h2><strong>American papaw, pawpaw Seeds (Asimina triloba)</strong></h2> <h2><span style="color: #fe0000;"><strong>Price for Package of 3 seeds.</strong></span></h2> <p style="margin: 0.5em 0px; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; background-color: #ffffff;"><em><strong>Asimina triloba</strong></em>, the <strong>American papaw</strong>, <strong>pawpaw</strong>, <strong>paw paw</strong>, or <strong>paw-paw</strong>, among many regional names, is a small deciduous tree native to the eastern United States and Canada, producing a large, yellowish-green to brown fruit.<sup id="cite_ref-KSUfaq_2-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap; font-size: 11.2px;">[2]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-ncsu_3-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap; font-size: 11.2px;">[3]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-layne_4-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap; font-size: 11.2px;">[4]</sup> It belongs to the genus <em>Asimina</em> in the same plant family (the Annonaceae) as the custard-apple, cherimoya, sweetsop, ylang-ylang, and soursop.</p> <p style="margin: 0.5em 0px; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; background-color: #ffffff;">The pawpaw is a patch-forming (clonal) understory tree found in well-drained, deep, fertile bottomland and hilly upland habitat, with large, simple leaves. Pawpaw fruits are the largest edible fruit indigenous to the United States<sup id="cite_ref-purdue_5-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap; font-size: 11.2px;">[5]</sup> <sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference" style="line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap; font-size: 11.2px;">[6]</sup>(not counting gourds, which are typically considered vegetables rather than fruit for culinary purposes, although in botany they are classified as fruit).<sup id="cite_ref-KSU_7-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1; unicode-bidi: isolate; white-space: nowrap; font-size: 11.2px;">[7]</sup></p> <p style="margin: 0.5em 0px; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; background-color: #ffffff;">Pawpaw fruits have a sweet, custard-like flavor somewhat similar to banana, mango, and pineapple, and are commonly eaten raw, but are also used to make ice cream and baked desserts. The bark, leaves, and fruit contain the insecticidal neurotoxin, annonacin.</p> <h2><span id="Names">Names</span></h2> <p>This plant's scientific name is <em>Asimina triloba.</em> The genus name <em>Asimina</em> is adapted from the Native American (probably Miami-Illinois<sup id="cite_ref-Chamberlain_9-0">[9]</sup>) name <span title="Miami-Illinois-language text"><em>assimin</em></span> or <span title="Miami-Illinois-language text"><em>rassimin</em></span><sup id="cite_ref-Werthner_10-0">[10]</sup> through the French colonial <span title="French-language text"><em>asiminier</em></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sargent_11-0">[11]</sup> The specific epithet <em>triloba</em> in the species' scientific name refers to the flowers' three-lobed calyces and doubly three-lobed corollas,<sup id="cite_ref-Werthner_10-1">[10]</sup> the shape not unlike a tricorne hat.</p> <p>The common name of this species is variously spelled pawpaw, paw paw, paw-paw, and papaw. It probably derives from the Spanish <em>papaya</em>, an American tropical and subtropical fruit (<em>Carica papaya</em>) sometimes also called "papaw",<sup id="cite_ref-12">[12]</sup> perhaps because of the superficial similarity of their fruits and the fact that both have very large leaves. The name pawpaw or papaw, first recorded in print in English in 1598, originally meant the giant herb <em>Carica papaya</em> or its fruit (as it still commonly does in many English-speaking communities, including Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa). Daniel F. Austin's <em>Florida Ethnobotany</em><sup id="cite_ref-13">[13]</sup> states that:</p> <blockquote> <p>The original "papaw" ... is <em>Carica papaya</em>. By 1598, English-speaking people in the Caribbean were calling these plants "pawpaws" or "papaws" ... [yet later, when English-speakers settled in] the temperate Americas, they found another tree with a similarly aromatic, sweet fruit. It reminded them of the "papaya", which had already become "papaw", so that is what they called these different plants ... By 1760, the names "papaw" and "pawpaw" were being applied to <em>A. triloba</em>.</p> </blockquote> <p>Yet <em>A. triloba</em> has had numerous local common names, many of which compare it to a banana rather than to <em>Carica papaya</em>. These include: wild banana, prairie banana, Indiana banana, Hoosier banana, West Virginia banana, Kansas banana, Kentucky banana, Michigan banana, Missouri banana, Appalachian banana, Ozark banana, Indian banana, banango, and the poor man's banana, as well as American custard apple, <em>asimoya</em>,<sup id="cite_ref-14">[14]</sup> Quaker delight, and hillbilly mango.<sup id="cite_ref-15">[15]</sup></p> <p>Due to increased interest in the foraging and locavore food movement during the late 2010s and the COVID-19 pandemic,<sup id="cite_ref-16">[16]</sup> the pawpaw has been referred to tongue-in-cheek as the "hipster banana".<sup id="cite_ref-17">[17]</sup></p> <p>Several tribes of Native Americans have terms for the pawpaw such as <span title="Pawnee-language text"><em>riwahárikstikuc</em></span> (Pawnee),<sup id="cite_ref-18">[18]</sup> <span title="Kansa-language text"><em>tózhaⁿ hu</em></span> (Kansa),<sup id="cite_ref-19">[19]</sup> and <span title="Choctaw-language text"><em>umbi</em></span> (Choctaw).<br /><br /></p> <h2><span id="Description">Description</span></h2> <div> <div><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Asimina_triloba_kz1.jpg/220px-Asimina_triloba_kz1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Asimina_triloba_kz1.jpg/330px-Asimina_triloba_kz1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Asimina_triloba_kz1.jpg/440px-Asimina_triloba_kz1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2568" data-file-height="2472" style="border-width: 1px; border-image-width: initial;" /> <div> <div></div> Paw paw blossom</div> </div> </div> <div> <div><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Paw_Paw_blossom.jpg/220px-Paw_Paw_blossom.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Paw_Paw_blossom.jpg/330px-Paw_Paw_blossom.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Paw_Paw_blossom.jpg/440px-Paw_Paw_blossom.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2117" data-file-height="1905" style="border-width: 1px; border-image-width: initial;" /> <div> <div></div> Paw paw blossoms</div> </div> </div> <p><em>A. triloba</em> is a large shrub or small tree growing to a height of 35 ft (11 m), rarely as tall as 45 ft (14 m), with trunks 8–12 in (20–30 cm) or more in diameter. The large leaves of pawpaw trees are clustered symmetrically at the ends of the branches, giving a distinctive imbricated appearance to the tree's foliage.<sup id="cite_ref-Werthner_10-2">[10]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Keeler_21-0">[21]</sup></p> <p>The leaves of the species are simple, alternate and spirally arranged, entire, deciduous, obovate-lanceolate, 10–12 in (25–30 cm) long, 4–5 in (10–13 cm) broad, and wedge-shaped at the base, with an acute apex and an entire margin, with the midrib and primary veins prominent. The petioles are short and stout, with a prominent adaxial groove. Stipules are lacking. The expanding leaves are conduplicate, green, covered with rusty tomentum beneath, and hairy above; when fully grown they are smooth, dark green above, and paler beneath. When bruised, the leaves have a disagreeable odor similar to a green bell pepper. In autumn, the leaves are a rusty yellow, allowing pawpaw groves to be spotted from a long distance.<sup id="cite_ref-KSU_7-1">[7]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Werthner_10-3">[10]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Keeler_21-1">[21]</sup></p> <p>Pawpaw flowers are perfect, about 1–2 in (3–5 cm) across, rich red-purple or maroon when mature, with three sepals and six petals. They are borne singly on stout, hairy, axillary peduncles. The flowers are produced in early spring at the same time as or slightly before the new leaves appear, and have a faint fetid or yeasty smell.<sup id="cite_ref-KSU_7-2">[7]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Werthner_10-4">[10]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Keeler_21-2">[21]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Georgia_22-0">[22]</sup></p> <div> <div><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Pawpaw-fruit.jpg/220px-Pawpaw-fruit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="246" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Pawpaw-fruit.jpg/330px-Pawpaw-fruit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Pawpaw-fruit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="402" data-file-height="450" style="border-width: 1px; border-image-width: initial;" /> <div> <div></div> Fruit</div> </div> </div> <p>The fruit of the pawpaw is a large, yellowish-green to brown berry, 2–6 in (5–15 cm) long and 1–3 in (3–8 cm) broad, weighing from 0.7–18 oz (20–510 g), containing several brown or black seeds <span role="math">1⁄2</span>–1 in (15–25 mm) in diameter embedded in the soft, edible fruit pulp. The conspicuous fruits begin developing after the plants flower; they are initially green, maturing by September or October to yellow or brown. When mature, the heavy fruits bend the weak branches down.<sup id="cite_ref-KSU_7-3">[7]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Werthner_10-5">[10]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Keeler_21-3">[21]</sup></p> <p>Other characteristics:</p> <ul> <li>Calyx: Sepals three, valvate in bud, ovate, acuminate, pale green, downy<sup id="cite_ref-Werthner_10-6">[10]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Keeler_21-4">[21]</sup></li> <li>Corolla: Petals six, in two rows, imbricate in the bud; inner row acute, erect, nectariferous; outer row broadly ovate, reflexed at maturity; petals at first are green, then brown, and finally become dull purple or maroon and conspicuously veiny<sup id="cite_ref-Werthner_10-7">[10]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Keeler_21-5">[21]</sup></li> <li>Stamens: Indefinite, densely packed on the globular receptacle; filaments short; anthers extrorse, two-celled, opening longitudinally<sup id="cite_ref-Keeler_21-6">[21]</sup></li> <li>Pollen: Shed as permanent tetrads<sup id="cite_ref-23">[23]</sup></li> <li>Pistils: Several, on the summit of the receptacle, projecting from the mass of stamens; ovary one-celled; stigma sessile; ovules many<sup id="cite_ref-Keeler_21-7">[21]</sup></li> <li>Branchlets: Light brown, tinged with red, marked by shallow grooves<sup id="cite_ref-Keeler_21-8">[21]</sup></li> <li>Winter buds: Small, of two kinds, the leaf buds pointed and closely appressed to the twigs, and the flower buds round, brown, and fuzzy<sup id="cite_ref-Werthner_10-8">[10]</sup></li> <li>Bark: Light gray, sometimes blotched with lighter gray spots, sometimes covered with small excrescences, divided by shallow fissures; inner bark tough, fibrous; bark with a very disagreeable odor when bruised<sup id="cite_ref-Werthner_10-9">[10]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Keeler_21-9">[21]</sup></li> <li>Wood: Pale, greenish yellow, sapwood lighter; light, soft, coarse-grained and spongy with a specific gravity of 0.3969 and a density of 24.74 pounds per cubic foot (396.3 kg/m³)<sup id="cite_ref-Werthner_10-10">[10]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Keeler_21-10">[21]</sup></li> <li>Longevity of fruit production: Undetermined<sup id="cite_ref-Cantaluppi_24-0">[24]</sup></li> </ul> <h2><span id="Range_and_ecology">Range and ecology</span></h2> <div> <div><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/PawPaw_bark.jpg/170px-PawPaw_bark.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/PawPaw_bark.jpg/255px-PawPaw_bark.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/PawPaw_bark.jpg/340px-PawPaw_bark.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="3008" style="border-width: 1px; border-image-width: initial;" /> <div> <div></div> Bark</div> </div> </div> <p>The pawpaw is native to the Eastern, Southern, and Midwestern United States and adjacent Ontario, Canada, from New York west to southeastern Nebraska, and south to northern Florida and eastern Texas.<sup id="cite_ref-KSU_7-4">[7]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-FNA_A._triloba_25-0">[25]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-26">[26]</sup></p> <p>The tree commonly grows in floodplains and shady, rich bottomlands, where it often forms a dense, clonally spreading undergrowth in the forest, often appearing as a patch or thicket of individual, small, slender trees. Pawpaws are not the first to colonize a disturbed site (arriving roughly four years after a clearcut), but may become dominant and slow the establishment of oaks and hickories. Although shade-tolerant, pawpaws do not persist in undisturbed old growth forest. Pawpaws spread locally primarily by root suckers; sexual reproduction by seed does also occur, but at a fairly low rate.<sup id="cite_ref-fire_27-0">[27]</sup> ″ Pawpaw flowers are insect-pollinated, but fruit production is sometimes limited as few if any pollinators are attracted to the flower's faint, or sometimes nonexistent scent.<sup id="cite_ref-apios_28-0">[28]</sup> The flowers produce an odor similar to that of rotting meat to attract blowflies or carrion beetles for cross-pollination. Other insects that are attracted to pawpaw flowers include scavenging fruit flies, carrion flies, and beetles. Because of irregular fruit production, some believe pawpaw plants are self-incompatible, requiring cross-pollination between trees of different clones (patches).<sup id="cite_ref-apios_28-1">[28]</sup></p> <p>The fruits of the pawpaw are eaten by a variety of mammals, including raccoons, gray foxes, opossums, squirrels, and black bears.<sup id="cite_ref-fire_27-1">[27]</sup></p> <p>The unpleasant smelling leaves, twigs, and bark of pawpaws contain natural insecticides known as acetogenins.<sup id="cite_ref-Sampson_29-0">[29]</sup> Pawpaw leaves and twigs are seldom consumed by rabbits, deer, or goats,<sup id="cite_ref-CRFG_30-0">[30]</sup> or by many insects.<sup id="cite_ref-KSU_7-5">[7]</sup> However, mules have been seen eating pawpaw leaves in Maryland.<sup id="cite_ref-Bilton_31-0">[31]</sup></p> <p>Larvae of the zebra swallowtail (<em>Protographium marcellus</em>), a butterfly, feed exclusively on young leaves of <em>A. triloba</em> and various other pawpaw (<em>Asimina</em>) species, but never occur in great numbers on the plants.<sup id="cite_ref-CRFG_30-1">[30]</sup> Chemicals in the pawpaw leaves confer protection from predation throughout the butterflies' lives, as trace amounts of acetogenins remain present, making them unpalatable to birds and other predators.<sup id="cite_ref-Zebra_32-0">[32]</sup></p> <h2><span id="Conservation_status">Conservation status</span></h2> <p>On a global (range-wide) scale, the common pawpaw (<em>A. triloba</em>) has a NatureServe global conservation rank of G5 (very common). In the United States, the species has an N5 (very common), but is considered a threatened species in New York, and an endangered species in New Jersey. In Canada, where the species is found only in portions of southern Ontario, it has a rank of N3 (vulnerable), and a NatureServe subnational conservation rank of S3 (vulnerable) in Ontario. The Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources has given the species a general status of "Sensitive", and its populations there are monitored.</p> <p>In areas in which deer populations are dense, pawpaws appear to be becoming more abundant locally, since the deer avoid them, but consume seedlings of most other woody plants.<sup id="cite_ref-Bilton_31-1">[31]</sup></p> <h2><span id="History">History</span></h2> <p>The natural seed dispersal of the common pawpaw in North America, prior to the ice ages and lasting until roughly 10,000 years ago, occurred via the dung of certain megafauna until they became extinct during the Quaternary extinction event<sup id="cite_ref-Anachronistic_33-0">[33]</sup> - a parallel case in South and Central America being that of the avocado.<sup id="cite_ref-34">[34]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-35">[35]</sup> After the arrival of humans and the subsequent extinction of megafauna that were distributing <em>A. triloba</em>, the probable distribution of these large fruit-bearing plants has been by humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Anachronistic_33-1">[33]</sup></p> <p>The earliest documented mention of pawpaws is in the 1541 report of the Spanish de Soto expedition, who found Native Americans east of the Mississippi River cultivating what some have identified as the pawpaw.<sup id="cite_ref-Moore_36-0">[36]</sup> The Lewis and Clark Expedition consumed pawpaws during their travels.<sup id="cite_ref-Moore_36-1">[36]</sup> Thomas Jefferson planted it at Monticello, his home in Virginia.<sup id="cite_ref-Moore_36-2">[36]</sup> Legend has it that chilled pawpaw fruit was a favorite dessert of George Washington.<sup id="cite_ref-37">[37]</sup></p> <h2><span id="Research">Research</span></h2> <p>Kentucky State University (KSU) has the only full-time pawpaw research program in the world; it was started in 1990 with the aim of developing pawpaw as a new tree-fruit crop for Kentucky. Pawpaw is the largest native fruit in North America and has very few diseases compared to other orchard crops. KSU is the site of the USDA National Clonal Germplasm Repository for <em>Asimina</em> species and the pawpaw orchards at KSU contain over 1,700 trees. Research activities include germplasm collection and variety trials, and efforts are directed towards improving propagation, understanding fruit ripening and storage, and developing orchard management practices. Cultivation is best in hardiness zones 5-9 and trees take 7-8 years from seedling to fruiting. KSU has created the three cultivars KSU-'Atwood', KSU-'Benson', and KSU-'Chappell', with foci on better flavors, higher yields, vigorous plants, and low seed-to-pulp ratios.<sup id="cite_ref-germplasm_38-0">[38]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-purdue_5-1">[5]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-kysupawpaw_39-0">[39]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-ccd-cp-14_40-0">[40]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-kysu-propagation_41-0">[41]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-kysu-cultiv2009_42-0">[42]</sup></p> <h2><span id="Cultivation">Cultivation</span></h2> <div> <div><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Asimina_triloba_pollination.jpg/220px-Asimina_triloba_pollination.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Asimina_triloba_pollination.jpg/330px-Asimina_triloba_pollination.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Asimina_triloba_pollination.jpg/440px-Asimina_triloba_pollination.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" style="border-width: 1px; border-image-width: initial;" /> <div> <div></div> <em>Asimina triloba</em> flower showing pollinators</div> </div> </div> <p>In cultivation, lack of successful pollination is the most common cause of poor fruiting. Cultivation is best in hardiness zones 5-9<sup id="cite_ref-purdue_5-2">[5]</sup> and trees take 7-8 years from seedling to fruiting. Cross-pollination of at least two different genetic varieties of the plant is recommended,<sup id="cite_ref-KSU_7-6">[7]</sup> and growers often resort to hand pollination or to use of pollinator attractants such as spraying fish emulsion or hanging chicken necks or other meat near the open flowers to attract pollinators. While pawpaws are larval hosts for the zebra swallowtail butterfly, these caterpillars are usually present only at low density, and not detrimental to the foliage of the trees.<sup id="cite_ref-CRFG_30-2">[30]</sup></p> <p>Pawpaws have never been cultivated for their fruits on the scale of apples or peaches, primarily because pawpaw fruits ripen to the point of fermentation soon after they are picked, and only frozen fruit stores or ships well. Other methods of preservation include dehydration, production of jams or jellies, and pressure canning (using the numerical values for bananas).</p> <p>Cultivation of pawpaws for fruit production has attracted interest, particularly among organic growers, as a fruit with few to no pests that can successfully be grown in its native environment without pesticides. The commercial cultivation and harvesting of pawpaws is strong in southeastern Ohio<sup id="cite_ref-43">[43]</sup> and also being explored in Kentucky<sup id="cite_ref-KSU_7-7">[7]</sup> and Maryland,<sup id="cite_ref-Bilton_31-2">[31]</sup> as well as various areas outside the species' native range, including California,<sup id="cite_ref-CRFG_30-3">[30]</sup> the Pacific Northwest,<sup id="cite_ref-CRFG_30-4">[30]</sup> and Massachusetts.<sup id="cite_ref-Damrosch_44-0">[44]</sup> The pawpaw is used for landscaping due to its distinctive growth habit, the appeal of its fresh fruit, and its relatively low maintenance needs once established.<sup id="cite_ref-Georgia_22-1">[22]</sup></p> <h3><span id="Propagation">Propagation</span></h3> <div> <div><img alt="An indoor A. triloba plant just a few days after the first signs on life became visible from the top soil; it could be 'Mango' or 'Taytwo' variety." src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Young_Asimina_Triloba_Sapling_In_Pot.jpg/220px-Young_Asimina_Triloba_Sapling_In_Pot.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="251" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Young_Asimina_Triloba_Sapling_In_Pot.jpg/330px-Young_Asimina_Triloba_Sapling_In_Pot.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Young_Asimina_Triloba_Sapling_In_Pot.jpg/440px-Young_Asimina_Triloba_Sapling_In_Pot.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2744" data-file-height="3125" style="border-width: 1px; border-image-width: initial;" /> <div> <div></div> A young, pot-grown <em>A. triloba</em> tree sprouting from the soil, showing the large, heavy seed being lifted by the young stem</div> </div> </div> <p>Trees are easily grown from seed. Seeds should not be dried out, as they lose viability if they dehydrate to 5% moisture.<sup id="cite_ref-propagation_45-0">[45]</sup> The seeds need to be stratified by moist cold storage for 60-100 days at 35–45 °F (2–7 °C) (some publications suggest 90-120 days).<sup id="cite_ref-propagation_45-1">[45]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-kysu-propagation_41-1">[41]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-ccd-cp-14_40-1">[40]</sup> They will lose their viability if stored for 3 years or more; some seeds survive if stored for 2 years. Germination is hypogeal and cotyledons remain within the seed coat. Strictly speaking, hypogeal means the cotyledons stay in the soil, acting as a food store for the seedling until the plumule emerges from the soil on the epicotyl or true stem. However, pawpaw seeds have occasionally been observed to emerge from the ground and form the true stem and plumule above the ground.</p> <p>Propagation using cuttings has generally not been successful.<sup id="cite_ref-kysu-propagation_41-2"></sup></p> <p>Desirable cultivars are propagated by chip budding or whip grafting onto a rootstock. Pawpaw seeds do not grow "true to type" — each individual seed in fruit is genetically different from the others and from its parent tree. Purchased cultivars do not produce seeds true to type, either, which is why cultivars are all grafted trees. Root sucker seedlings, however, are all genetically identical to their host.<sup id="cite_ref-kysu-propagation_41-3">[41]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-ccd-cp-14_40-2">[40]</sup></p> <p>Commercial nurseries usually ship seedlings in containers, usually grafted cultivars, but other nurseries such as the Kentucky Division of Forestry ship bare-root seedlings for reforestation projects and area homeowners.<sup id="cite_ref-46">[46]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-ccd-cp-14_40-3">[40]</sup></p> <p>Harvesting seedlings from the forest floor is tricky because most forest-floor seedlings are actually root suckers with few roots, and those seedlings that did grow from seed have deep taproots.<sup id="cite_ref-kysu-propagation_41-4">[41]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-ccd-cp-14_40-4">[40]</sup></p> <p>Blowflies, such as <em>C. vomitoria</em>, are known pollinators of these plants.</p> <h2><span id="Uses">Uses</span></h2> <div> <div><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Asimina_triloba_red_fern_farm.jpg/220px-Asimina_triloba_red_fern_farm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Asimina_triloba_red_fern_farm.jpg/330px-Asimina_triloba_red_fern_farm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Asimina_triloba_red_fern_farm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="359" data-file-height="233" style="border-width: 1px; border-image-width: initial;" /> <div> <div></div> <em>A. triloba</em> is often called wild banana, Indiana banana, or prairie banana because of its banana-like creamy texture and flavor.</div> </div> </div> <table><caption>Paw paw, raw with skin</caption> <tbody> <tr> <th colspan="2">Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row"> <div><strong>Carbohydrates</strong></div> </th> <td> <div>18.8 g</div> </td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Dietary fiber</th> <td>2.6 g</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row"> <div><strong>Fat</strong></div> </th> <td> <div>1.2 g</div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row"> <div><strong>Protein</strong></div> </th> <td> <div>1.2 g</div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><strong>Vitamins</strong></th> <td><strong>Quantity</strong> <div><abbr title="Percentage of Daily Value"><strong>%DV</strong></abbr>^†</div> </td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Vitamin A equiv.</th> <td> <div>11%</div> 87 μg</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Thiamine (B1)</th> <td> <div>1%</div> 0.01 mg</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Riboflavin (B2)</th> <td> <div>8%</div> 0.09 mg</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Niacin (B3)</th> <td> <div>7%</div> 1.1 mg</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Vitamin C</th> <td> <div>22%</div> 18.3 mg</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row"><strong>Minerals</strong></th> <td><strong>Quantity</strong> <div><abbr title="Percentage of Daily Value"><strong>%DV</strong></abbr>^†</div> </td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Calcium</th> <td> <div>6%</div> 63 mg</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Iron</th> <td> <div>54%</div> 7 mg</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Magnesium</th> <td> <div>32%</div> 113 mg</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Manganese</th> <td> <div>124%</div> 2.6 mg</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Phosphorus</th> <td> <div>7%</div> 47 mg</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Potassium</th> <td> <div>7%</div> 345 mg</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row">Zinc</th> <td> <div>9%</div> 0.9 mg</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><hr /> <div>Analysis from Kentucky State University Pawpaw Program</div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"> <div> <ul style="list-style-type: none;"> <li>Units</li> <li>μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams</li> <li>IU = International units</li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">^†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <h3><span id="Fruits">Fruits</span></h3> <p>As described by horticulturist Barbara Damrosch, the fruit of the pawpaw "looks a bit like mango, but with pale yellow, custardy, spoonable flesh and black, easy-to-remove seeds."<sup id="cite_ref-Damrosch_44-1">[44]</sup> Wild-collected pawpaw fruits, ripe in late August to mid-September, have long been a favorite treat throughout the tree's extensive native range in eastern North America, and on occasion are sold locally at farmers' markets.<sup id="cite_ref-KSU_7-8">[7]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Damrosch_44-2">[44]</sup> Pawpaw fruits have a sweet, custard-like flavor somewhat similar to banana, mango, and cantaloupe,<sup id="cite_ref-KSU_7-9">[7]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Werthner_10-11">[10]</sup> varying significantly by source or cultivar,<sup id="cite_ref-KSU_7-10">[7]</sup> with more protein than most fruits.<sup id="cite_ref-KSU_7-11">[7]</sup> Nineteenth-century American agronomist E. Lewis Sturtevant described pawpaws as</p> <blockquote> <p>... a natural custard, too luscious for the relish of most people<sup id="cite_ref-Bilton_31-3">[31]</sup></p> </blockquote> <p>Ohio botanist William B. Werthner noted that</p> <blockquote> <p>The fruit ... has a tangy wild-wood flavor peculiarly its own. It is sweet, yet rather cloying to the taste and a wee bit puckery – only a boy can eat more than one at a time.<sup id="cite_ref-Werthner_10-12">[10]</sup></p> </blockquote> <p>Fresh fruits of the pawpaw are commonly eaten raw, either chilled or at room temperature. However, they can be kept only 2–3 days at room temperature, or about a week if refrigerated.<sup id="cite_ref-Georgia_22-2">[22]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-49">[49]</sup> The easily bruised pawpaw fruits do not ship well unless frozen.<sup id="cite_ref-KSU_7-12">[7]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Damrosch_44-3">[44]</sup> Where pawpaws grow, the fruit pulp is also often used locally in baked dessert recipes, with pawpaw often substituted with volumetric equivalency in many banana-based recipes. Pawpaws may also be blended into ice cream<sup id="cite_ref-Georgia_22-3">[22]</sup> or included in pancakes.<sup id="cite_ref-Georgia_22-4">[22]</sup></p> <h4><span id="Nutrition">Nutrition</span></h4> <p>According to a report from the KSU Pawpaw Program (right table), raw pawpaw (with skin) is 19% carbohydrates, 1% protein, 1% fat, and 79% water (estimated). In a 100-g reference amount, the raw fruit provides 80 Calories and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin C (22% DV), magnesium (32% DV), iron (54% DV), and manganese (124% DV). The fruit also contains a moderate amount of vitamin A (11% DV).</p> <h3><span id="Phytochemicals">Phytochemicals</span></h3> <div> <div><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/AbbotV1Tab04AA.jpg/170px-AbbotV1Tab04AA.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/AbbotV1Tab04AA.jpg/255px-AbbotV1Tab04AA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/AbbotV1Tab04AA.jpg/340px-AbbotV1Tab04AA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="981" data-file-height="1200" style="border-width: 1px; border-image-width: initial;" /> <div> <div></div> Zebra swallowtail butterflies (<em>Eurytides marcellus</em>) with pawpaw foliage</div> </div> </div> <p>Phytochemical extracts of the leaves and fruit contain acetogenins, including the neurotoxin annonacin.<sup id="cite_ref-neurotoxic_50-0">[50]</sup> The seeds and bark contain the chemical asimitrin<sup id="cite_ref-51">[51]</sup> and other acetogenins, including asimin, asiminacin and asiminecin.<sup id="cite_ref-neurotoxic_50-1">[50]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-52">[52]</sup></p> <h3><span id="Effect_on_insects">Effect on insects</span></h3> <p>Due to the presence of acetogenins, the leaves, twigs, and bark of pawpaw trees can be used to make an organic insecticide.<sup id="cite_ref-Sampson_29-1">[29]</sup> The only insect species immune to these insecticidal compounds is the zebra swallowtail butterfly (<em>Protographium marcellus</em>), whose larvae feed on the leaves of various species of <em>Asimina,</em> conferring protection from predation throughout the butterflies' lives, as trace amounts of acetogenins remain present, making them unpalatable to birds and other predators.<sup id="cite_ref-Zebra_32-1">[32]</sup></p> <h3><span id="Historical_uses">Historical uses</span></h3> <p>The tough, fibrous inner bark of the pawpaw was used by Native Americans and settlers in the Midwest for making ropes, fishing nets, and mats,<sup id="cite_ref-Werthner_10-13">[10]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bilton_31-4">[31]</sup> and for stringing fish.<sup id="cite_ref-Sargent_11-1">[11]</sup></p> <p>Pawpaw logs have been used for split-rail fences in Arkansas.<sup id="cite_ref-Werthner_10-14">[10]</sup></p> <p>The hard, brown, shiny lima-bean-sized seeds were sometimes carried as pocket pieces in Ohio.<sup id="cite_ref-Werthner_10-15">[10]</sup></p> <h2><span id="Cultural_significance">Cultural significance</span></h2> <h3><span id="Old_song">Old song</span></h3> <p>A traditional American folk song portrays wild harvesting of pawpaws; Arty Schronce of the Georgia Department of Agriculture gives these lyrics:<sup id="cite_ref-Georgia_22-5">[22]</sup></p> <blockquote> <div> <p>Where, oh where is dear little Nellie?<br />Where, oh where is dear little Nellie?<br />Where, oh where is dear little Nellie?<br />Way down yonder in the pawpaw patch<br /><br />Pickin' up pawpaws, puttin' 'em in your pocket<br />Pickin' up pawpaws, puttin' 'em in your pocket<br />Pickin' up pawpaws, puttin' 'em in your pocket<br />Way down yonder in the pawpaw patch</p> </div> </blockquote> <p>He notes that "picking up pawpaws" refers to gathering the ripe, fallen fruit from beneath the trees, and that the "pocket" in the song is that of an apron or similar tie-on pocket, not a modern pants or blue-jeans pocket, into which pawpaws would hardly fit.<sup id="cite_ref-Georgia_22-6">[22]</sup> A "pawpaw patch" refers to the plant's characteristic patch-forming clonal growth habit.</p> <h3><span id="Place_names">Place names</span></h3> <p>The pawpaw is the basis for various place and school names in the United States, almost all using the older spelling variant "paw paw".</p> <ul> <li>The Paw Paw Tunnel on the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal in Maryland is a 3118-foot (950-m) canal tunnel completed in 1850 to bypass about 5 miles of the 6-mile-long Paw Paw Bends of the Potomac River near the town of Paw Paw, West Virginia, all ultimately named after the pawpaw tree.<sup id="cite_ref-53">[53]</sup></li> <li>In Michigan, the Paw Paw River is named for the pawpaw trees that grew along its banks. Paw Paw Lake and Little Paw Paw Lake are both tributaries to the river. The town of Paw Paw, Michigan, is located at the junction of two branches of the Paw Paw River. The Paw Paw Railroad (1857–1887) operated a 4-mile (6.4-km) rail line between Lawton and Paw Paw, in Van Buren County, Michigan.<sup id="cite_ref-54">[54]</sup></li> <li>The village of Paw Paw, Illinois, was named after a nearby grove of pawpaw trees.<sup id="cite_ref-55">[55]</sup></li> <li>The community of Paw Paw, Indiana, in Miami County, and Paw Paw Township in DeKalb County and Paw Paw Township in Wabash County are all named after groves of native pawpaw trees.<sup id="cite_ref-56">[56]</sup></li> <li>Paw Paw, Kentucky, a community in easternmost Kentucky, was named after the native fruit tree.<sup id="cite_ref-57">[57]</sup></li> <li>The (now extinct) town of Paw Paw, Missouri, was named after the trees.<sup id="cite_ref-58"></sup></li> </ul>

V 48 (3 s)

5/ 5

<h2 class=""><strong>Key lime seeds (Citrus aurantiifolia)</strong></h2> <h2><span style="color: #ff0000;"><strong>Price for Package of 2 seeds.</strong></span></h2> <p style="color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">The<span>&nbsp;</span><b>Key lime</b><span>&nbsp;</span>(<i>Citrus</i><span>&nbsp;</span>×<span>&nbsp;</span><i>aurantiifolia</i>) is a<span>&nbsp;</span>citrus hybrid<span>&nbsp;</span>(<i>C. hystrix</i><span>&nbsp;</span>x<span>&nbsp;</span><i>C. medica</i>) with a spherical fruit, 25–50&nbsp;mm (1–2&nbsp;in) in diameter. The Key lime is usually picked while it is still green, but it becomes yellow when ripe.</p> <p style="color: #202122; font-size: 14px;">The Key lime is smaller, seedier, has higher acidity, stronger aroma, and thinner<span>&nbsp;</span>rind<span>&nbsp;</span>than the<span>&nbsp;</span>Persian lime<span>&nbsp;</span>(<i>Citrus × latifolia</i>). It is valued for its characteristic flavor. The name comes from its association with the<span>&nbsp;</span>Florida Keys, where it is best known as the<span>&nbsp;</span>flavoring<span>&nbsp;</span>ingredient in<span>&nbsp;</span>Key lime pie. It is also known as<span>&nbsp;</span><b>West Indian lime</b>,<span>&nbsp;</span><b>bartender's lime</b>,<span>&nbsp;</span><b>Omani lime</b>, or<span>&nbsp;</span><b>Mexican lime</b>, the last classified as a distinct<span>&nbsp;</span>race<span>&nbsp;</span>with a thicker skin and darker green color. Philippine varieties have various names, including<span>&nbsp;</span><i><b>dayap</b></i><span>&nbsp;</span>and<span>&nbsp;</span><i>bilolo</i>.</p> <h2 style="color: #000000; font-size: 1.5em;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Description">Description</span></h2> <p><i>C. aurantiifolia</i><span>&nbsp;</span>is a shrubby tree, to 5&nbsp;m (16&nbsp;ft), with many<span>&nbsp;</span>thorns. Dwarf varieties exist that can be grown indoors during winter months and in colder climates. Its trunk, which rarely grows straight, has many branches, and they often originate quite far down on the trunk. The leaves are ovate, 25–90&nbsp;mm (1–<span class="frac nowrap">3<span class="visualhide">&nbsp;</span><sup style="font-size: 11.2px;">1</sup>⁄<sub style="font-size: 11.2px;">2</sub></span>&nbsp;in) long, resembling<span>&nbsp;</span>orange<span>&nbsp;</span>leaves (the scientific name<span>&nbsp;</span><i>aurantiifolia</i><span>&nbsp;</span>refers to this resemblance to the leaves of the orange,<span>&nbsp;</span><i>Citrus aurantium</i>). The<span>&nbsp;</span>flowers<span>&nbsp;</span>are 25 mm (1 in) in diameter, are yellowish-white with a light purple tinge on the margins. Flowers and fruit appear throughout the year but are most abundant from May to September in the Northern Hemisphere.<sup id="cite_ref-purdue1_5-0" class="reference" style="font-size: 11.2px;"></sup></p> <p>Skin contact can sometimes cause<span>&nbsp;</span>phytophotodermatitis,<sup id="cite_ref-Weber_et_al._1999_6-0" class="reference" style="font-size: 11.2px;"></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference" style="font-size: 11.2px;"></sup><span>&nbsp;</span>which makes the skin especially sensitive to<span>&nbsp;</span>ultraviolet<span>&nbsp;</span>light.</p> <h3 style="color: #000000; font-size: 1.2em;"><strong><span class="mw-headline" id="Cultivation_and_propagation">Cultivation and propagation</span></strong></h3> <div class="thumb tright" style="color: #202122; font-size: 14px;"><span>There are various approaches to the cultivation of Key limes. This variety of&nbsp;</span>citrus<span>&nbsp;can be propagated from seed and will grow true to the parent.<br><span>If the plants are propagated from seed, the seeds should be stored at least 5–6 months before planting.</span></span></div>

V 119 CAKL

5/ 5

<!DOCTYPE html> <html> <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> </head> <body> <h2><strong>Shizuoka Crown Melon Seeds</strong></h2> <h2><span style="color: #ff0000;"><strong>Price for Package of 5, 10, 50 seeds.</strong></span></h2> <p>The "Shizuoka Crown Melon" has the beauty of artistic form, a fragrance with the scent of musk, plenty of juice, mellow taste, and smooth texture, which is the high-grade melon cultivated in Fukuroi city of Shizuoka prefecture, called “Shizuoka Crown Melon”. “Shizuoka Crown Melon” is cultivated with sophisticated techniques of growers and grown absolutely in greenhouses. In other words, the ultimate taste of “Shizuoka Crown Melon”, which was born by outstanding virtuosity of professionals, has been taken over from generation to generation.</p> <p>The melon has been presented to the Japanese royal family for a long time and recognized as an elegant and prestigious fruit in Japan. Many VIPs also love Crown Melon. When the queen of the United Kingdom came to Japan and ate Crown Melon, we got words of praise.</p> </body> </html>

V 2 SC (10S)

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<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <h2><strong>Onion Seeds Kupusinski Jabucar</strong></h2> <h2><span style="color: #ff0000;"><strong>Price for Package of 250-300 (1g) seeds.</strong></span></h2> <p>Kupusinski jabučar is old Serbian variety, and one of the favorite old varieties The fruit bulb is apple-shaped (hence the name Kupusinski jabučar), with a solid, well-closed neck. Sheath leaves are dark yellow in color. This variety can be stored for a long time, without to lose taste.</p> <p>"Kupusinski jabučar" translated to English "Apple Onion aus Kupusina" (Kupusina is Village in Serbia).</p> <p>The medium-hot variety is grown successfully from seeds. The average mass of the fruit bulb is 80-120 g. </p> <p>The dry matter content is 12-14%. It yields about 300 mc/ha.</p> <p> <script type="text/javascript"></script> </p>

MHS 150 (100 S)

5/ 5

<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <h2><strong>Mexican Coriander Seeds (Eryngium foetidum)</strong></h2> <h2><span style="color: #ff0000;"><strong>Price for a Package of 20 seeds.</strong></span></h2> <p>Eryngium foetidum is a tropical perennial herb in the family Apiaceae. Common names include culantro , recao, shadow beni, Mexican coriander, bhandhania, long coriander, sawtooth coriander, and ngò gai. It is native to Mexico, the Caribbean, Central and South America, but is cultivated worldwide, sometimes being grown as an annual in temperate climates.</p> <p>In the United States, the common name culantro sometimes causes confusion with cilantro, a common name for the leaves of Coriandrum sativum (also in Apiaceae), of which culantro is said to taste like a stronger version.</p> <p><strong>Uses</strong></p> <p><strong>Culinary</strong></p> <ol> <li>foetidum is widely used in seasoning, marinating and garnishing in the Caribbean, particularly in Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago, Panama, Guyana, Suriname, and in Ecuador and Peru's Amazon regions. It is used extensively in Cambodia, Thailand, India, Vietnam, Laos,Myanmar and other parts of Asia as a culinary herb.[5] It dries well, retaining good color and flavor, making it valuable in the dried herb industry. It is sometimes used as a substitute for coriander, but it has a much stronger taste.</li> </ol> <p> </p> <p>In the United States, E. foetidum grows naturally in Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands.</p> <p><strong>Traditional medicine</strong></p> <ol> <li>foetidum has been used in traditional medicine in tropical regions for burns, earache, fevers, hypertension, constipation, fits, asthma, stomachache, worms, infertility complications, snake bites, diarrhea, and malaria.</li> <li>foetidum is also known as E. antihystericum.[8] The specific name antihystericum reflects the fact that this plant has traditionally been used for epilepsy.[9] The plant is said to calm a person's 'spirit' and thus prevents epileptic 'fits', so is known by the common names spiritweed and fitweed. The anticonvulsant properties of this plant have been scientifically investigated.[10][medical citation needed] A decoction of the leaves has been shown to exhibit anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects in rats.</li> </ol> <p>Eryngial is a chemical compound isolated from E. foetidum.[12] The University of the West Indies at Mona, Jamaica, has investigated the use of enyngial as a treatment for human Strongyloides stercoralis infection (strongyloidiasis).</p> <p>It is used as an ethnomedicinal plant for the treatment of a number of ailments such as fevers, chills, vomiting, burns, fevers, hypertension, headache, earache, stomachache, asthma, arthritis, snake bites, scorpion stings, diarrhea, malaria and epilepsy.[medical citation needed] The main constituent of essential oil of the plant is eryngial (E-2-dodecenal). A pharmacological investigation claims to have demonstrated anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anticonvulsant, anticlastogenic, anticarcinogenic, antidiabetic, and antibacterial activity.</p> <p> </p>

MHS 32 (20 S)

5/ 5

<h2><strong>Bilberry - Whortleberry Seeds (Vaccinium myrtillus)</strong></h2> <h2><span style="color:#ff0000;"><strong>Price for Package of 5 seeds.</strong></span></h2> <p>Ericaceae: a low, spreading shrub, up to 2ft tall, bilberry is one of the most common plants of the moorlands and mountains, growing among the heather. The green-pink bell-shaped flowers appear from April to June and are followed in July by round blue-black berries covered with a grape-like bloom. The berries, which can be used to make jam, they are also an important part of the diet of grouse and other moorland birds. Bilberry is known as whortleberry in some part of England. Native to Europe, including Britain, from Iceland south and east to Spain, Macedonia, the Caucasus and Northern Asia.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>USES:</strong></p> <p>The fruit can be used raw or cooked, they have a sweet and very tasty flavour, and they make an excellent preserve, their small seeds making them suitable for jam. A slightly acid flavour when eaten raw. The fruit can be dried and used like currants, also an herbal tea can be made from the leaves.</p> <p> </p> <p>The dried leaves of bilberries are used in the treatment of a variety of complaints. These leaves should be harvested in early autumn, only green leaves being selected, and then dried in gentle heat. The leaves should not be used medicinally for more than 3 weeks at a time. A tea made from the dried leaves is strongly astringent, diuretic, tonic and an antiseptic for the urinary tract. It is also a remedy for diabetes if taken for a prolonged period. Another report says that the leaves can be helpful in pre-diabetic states but that they are not an alternative to conventional treatment. The leaves contain glucoquinones, which reduce the levels of sugar in the blood. A decoction of the leaves or bark is applied locally in the treatment of ulcers and in ulceration of the mouth and throat. A distilled water made from the leaves is an excellent eyewash for soothing inflamed or sore eyes. Whilst the fresh fruit has a slightly laxative effect upon the body, when dried it is astringent and is commonly used in the treatment of diarrhoea. The dried fruit is also antibacterial and a decoction is useful for treating diarrhoea in children. The skin of the fruits contains anthocyanin and is specific in the treatment of hemeralopia (day-blindness).</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>GROWING INFORMATION:</strong></p> <p>Sow late winter in a greenhouse in a lime-free potting mix and only just cover the seed. Stored seed might require a period of up to 3 months cold stratification before germination will take place.</p> <p>I have found that a soak in a GA3 solution will seed up the germination, and also do away with the need for cold stratification, surface sow seeds!</p> <p> </p> <p><strong><em>Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects. 2nd edition.:</em></strong></p> <p>Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) is one of the richest natural sources of anthocyanins. These polyphenolic components give bilberry its blue/black color and high antioxidant content, and they are believed to be the key bioactives responsible for the many reported health benefits of bilberry and other berry fruits. Although bilberry is promoted most commonly for improving vision, it has been reported to lower blood glucose, to have anti-inflammatory and lipid-lowering effects, and to promote antioxidant defense and lower oxidative stress. Therefore, bilberry is of potential value in the treatment or prevention of conditions associated with inflammation, dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia or increased oxidative stress, cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer, diabetes, and dementia and other age-related diseases. There are also reports that bilberry has antimicrobial activity. In this chapter, bilberry and its components and characteristics are described, and evidence for the health benefits of bilberry is presented and discussed.</p> <p> </p> <p>The bilberry plant is a low-growing shrub native to northern Europe, but is now also found in parts of North America and Asia. Bilberry is also known as European blueberry, whortleberry, huckleberry, and blaeberry. It belongs to a large genus (Vaccinium) of plants that also contains blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) and cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon; Upton 2001). Bilberry is sometimes called blueberry because both have similar appearance and are close relatives, but the true blueberry is native to the United States (National Institutes of Health 2010). Bilberry usually grows in heaths, meadows, and moist coniferous forests, and its growth is favored by moderate shade and moderately humid ground conditions. The bilberry is a small (5-9 mm in diameter) fruit, bluish black in color, with many seeds.</p> <p> </p> <p>Bilberry is classified as a Class 1 herb by the American Herbal Products Association (Upton 2001), meaning it can be safely consumed when used appropriately. No mutagenic activity has been reported, and there are no cited contraindications to its use (Upton, 2001). Bilberry is sold as fresh, frozen, and dried whole berries, as well as in the form of preserves, jams, and juices, and, increasingly, liquid or powdered concentrates are sold as food supplements. Bilberry contains a variety of phenolic compounds, including flavonols (quercetin, catechins), tannins, ellagitannins, and phenolic acids, but anthocyanins make by far the largest contribution to its phytochemical mix (Upton 2001; Seeram 2008). These naturally occurring phenolic compounds are redox-active antioxidants as well as iron chelators (Benzie 2003; Zafra-Stone et al. 2007), and are found in red-, blue-, and purple-colored flowers, fruits, and vegetables. The usual daily dietary intake of anthocyanins is approximately 200 mg (Zafra-Stone et al. 2007). Bilberry has higher anthocyanin content compared to other types of berries, such as strawberry, cranberry, elderberry, sour cherry, and raspberry (Kowalczyk et al. 2003; Bagchi et al. 2004; Yildirim 2006; Cravotto et al. 2010). The total anthocyanin content of bilberry is generally in the range of 300-700 mg/100 g fresh fruit, although this range varies with cultivar, growing conditions, and degree of ripeness of the berry (Upton 2001; Burdulis et al. 2009). Along with anthocyanins, 100 g of fresh bilberry contains small quantities of vitamin C (3 mg), quercetin (3 mg), and catechin (20 mg; Upton 2001; Erlund et al. 2003).</p> <p> </p> <p>Although most attention has been focused on the antioxidant properties of anthocyanins in relation to health benefits of bilberry, the effects are likely to extend beyond simple antioxidant action to involve cell-signaling pathways, gene expression, DNA repair, and cell adhesion, as well as antineoplastic and antimicrobial effects (Kowalczyk et al. 2003; Packer and Cadenas 2007; Zafra-Stone et al. 2007; Seeram 2008; Benzie and Wachel-Galor 2010). Commercial bilberry products are often standardized to a 25% anthocyanidin content (equivalent to 36% anthocyanins); but this content can vary greatly (Upton 2001; Lee 2008). Recommended daily dosages also vary greatly, for example, 20-60 g of dried berries and 160-480 mg of powdered extract (Upton 2001).</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>ANTHOCYANINS</strong></p> <p>Anthocyanins (from the Greek anthos for flower and kyanose for blue) are water-soluble polyphenols flavonoid compounds (Clifford 2000; Ghosh and Konishi 2007; Yoshida, Mori, and Kondo 2009). Anthocyanins are responsible for the pink, red, blue, and purple color of plants (Upton 2001). The color is pH dependent; the color is red at pH &lt; 2, changing to blue as pH increases and finally becoming colorless at high pH. The anthocyanin molecule consists of an anthocyanidin “core” with a sugar moiety attached. The sugar can be attached at various positions, and can be glucose, galactose, xylose, arabinose, or rhamnose (Clifford 2000; Kong et al. 2003; Prior and Wu 2006). Anthocyanins vary also in the number and position of hydroxyl and methoxyl groups attached to the core anthocyanidin structure. Therefore, although there are less than 20 naturally occurring anthocyanidins, there are many hundreds of different anthocyanins (Upton 2001; Prior and Wu 2006; Ghosh and Konishi 2007; Yoshida, Mori, and Kondo 2009). The most commonly found anthocyanidins in nature are cyanidin, delphinidin, petunidin, peonidin, pelargonidin, and malvidin, but these are very rarely found in their aglycone (nonsugar) forms (Kong et al. 2003; Prior and Wu 2006). The concentrations of the main anthocyanins found in bilberry are given in Table 4.1.</p> <p> </p> <p>Although the function of anthocyanin pigments in plants is thought to be mainly that of attracting animals, insects, and birds for pollination or seed dispersal, anthocyanins may help in cold tolerance as well as antimicrobial and antioxidant defense of plant tissues (Benzie 2003; Kong et al. 2003). The anthocyanin content of berries varies across species and also depends on environmental factors, such as the amount of solar radiation, temperature, and soil content of nitrogen and phosphorus. The cultivation technique is also a factor affecting the total phenolic level of berries. Anthocyanins are found mainly in the skin of the berry, and damage to the fruit skin caused during harvesting decreases anthocyanin content (Upton 2001). Degrees of ripeness of berries also contribute to variation in total phenolic content—although the concentration of phenolic compounds is usually higher in unripe berries than in mature fruits, anthocyanins accumulate during bilberry maturation (Upton 2001). Anthocyanins have powerful antioxidant properties, and the content of anthocyanin pigment directly correlates with antioxidant activity of plants (Upton 2001; Bagchi et al. 2004; Yildirim 2006; Zafra-Stone et al. 2007). In addition to their antioxidant effects, anthocyanins have been reported to stabilize DNA, modify adipocyte gene expression, improve insulin secretion and sensitivity, and have antiapoptotic, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial effects (Mas et al. 2000; Kong et al. 2003; Kowalczyk et al. 2003; Tsuda et al. 2005; Seeram 2008). These numerous and potentially highly beneficial effects of anthocyanins make foods rich in these compounds, such as bilberry, potential candidates as “functional foods” and phytotherapeutics (Cravotto et al. 2010).</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>BIOAVAILABILITY AND DISTRIBUTION OF ANTHOCYANINS</strong></p> <p>Unlike other polyphenolic flavonoids, anthocyanins can be absorbed intact, that is, without removing their sugar moiety. Absorption (and renal elimination) of anthocyanins is reported to be rapid, but of low efficiency (Prior and Wu 2006). In rats, absorption takes place in the stomach and small intestine, and varies depending on the structure of the anthocyanin. Absorption ranged from 11% for malvidin-3-glucoside to 22% for cyanidin-3-glucoside (Talavera et al. 2003). Plasma anthocyanins are found in plasma a few minutes after oral administration of berries or berry extracts, but are cleared within 6 hours. In humans, anthocyanin absorption from grapes, red wine, elderberry, blackcurrant, chokeberry, hibiscus, and raspberry has been studied (reviewed by Prior and Wu 2006). Most studies showed a maximal plasma concentration of anthocyanin at 1-2 hours postingestion (range 0.5–3.0 hours). Maximal plasma concentrations were not clearly related to dose and were generally in the 5-50 nmol/L range. The highest plasma concentration reported (99 nmol/L) occurred after a dose of red grape juice containing 266 μmol of malvidin-3-glucoside (Netzel et al. 2003). The major metabolites of anthocyanins recovered in urine are glucuronated and methylated conjugates (Prior and Wu 2006).</p> <p> </p> <p>With respect to anthocyanins from bilberry, human data are lacking, although some animal studies have been performed (as described by Upton 2001). In rats, the plasma total anthocyanin concentration was 26 mg/L at 1 hour after intraperitoneal administration of bilberry anthocyanins. Anthocyanins were detectable also in tissues collected at the same time, at concentrations of 12-79 μg/g tissue. Kidney had three fold higher anthocyanin content than plasma, and skin had 1.5-fold higher content than plasma (Talavera et al. 2003, 2005). After oral administration (400 mg/kg) of bilberry anthocyanins to rats, a maximal plasma concentration of 2.47 mg/L was reported at 15 minutes, with bioavailability estimated at 1.2% (reported by Upton 2001). In a more recent animal study of distribution and excretion of bilberry anthocyanins (Sakakibari et al. 2009), the plasma concentration of mice was shown to peak at 15 minutes postingestion of an ethanol extract of fresh bilberries, showing a sharp decrease thereafter, and the renal excretion of anthocyanins represented 1.88% of the dose ingested. Thirteen anthocyanins were detected in the bilberry extract, and the main anthocyanins in plasma at 60 minutes postingestion were malvidin-3-glucoside and malvidin-3- galactoside (Sakakibari et al.2009). In mice fed bilberry extract for 2 weeks, plasma levels reached a maximum of 0.26 μmol/L and anthocyanins were found only in liver, kidney, testes, and lung. No anthocyanins were found in brain, heart, muscle, eyes, or white fat. The researchers concluded that bilberry anthocyanins are absorbed but are taken up by specific organs (Sakakibari et al. 2009). However, there may be differences in the tissue distribution of anthocyanins across different species, as brain uptake of anthocyanins has been reported in a rat model (Talavera et al. 2005).</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>HEALTH EFFECTS OF BILBERRY</strong></p> <p>Besides its use as a delicacy, bilberry is widely used to improve night vision and to decrease vascular permeability and capillary fragility; moreover, the berry has various other reputed health benefits, although most interest has been focused on anthocyanin-related antioxidant effects (Camire 2000; Upton 2001; Mazza 2002; Park et al. 2007; Zafra-Stone et al. 2007). Although there are many studies that have investigated the antioxidant and other health-related effects of anthocyanins and anthocyanin-rich berries and extracts or juices, only a few have used bilberry itself, and data from controlled human trials are scarce. In Sections 4.5.1 through 4.5.8, studies that have used mixed berry juices or extracts including bilberry are discussed, as well as those that have used only bilberry fruit or extracts.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>Antioxidant Effects</strong></p> <p>Anthocyanins are potent antioxidants that scavenge radicals and chelate metal ions (Pool-Zobel et al. 1999; Mazza et al. 2002; Prior and Wu 2006). Many herbs and berries have powerful antioxidant properties (refer to Chapter 2 on antioxidants in herbs and spices), and these properties are thought to underlie many of the various health effects of herbs and berries.</p> <p> </p> <p>In primary cultures of rat hepatocytes, it was found that bilberry extract protected cells against oxidative damage (Valentova et al. 2006). As described by Upton (2001), bilberry or anthocyanin extracts of bilberry protects rat liver microsomes against oxidative damage and apolipoprotein B against ultraviolet (UV)-induced oxidative fragmentation. Animal studies show conflicting results. In a rat study, no significant change of urinary 8-OHdG (also known as 8-oxodG, and a biomarker of oxidative stress; Lee, Chung, and Benzie 2010), was reported after 14 weeks of supplementation with an anthocyanin-rich extract from mixed berries including bilberry (Lala et al. 2006). However, a significant decrease of malondialdehyde (a biomarker of lipid peroxidation; Benzie 1996) in brain was seen in OXYS rats fed with bilberry extract (2 g of dried aqueous extract including 0.35 g/kg diet; Kolosova et al. 2006). This strain of rats shows accelerated aging and higher oxidative stress compared to the Wistar rats and, interestingly, the Wistar rats did not show bilberry-related effects, suggesting that the antioxidant-effects of bilberry may be seen only in cases of elevated oxidative stress. A combination extract (OptiBerry) of six edible berries, including bilberry, was reported to show “unique antioxidant potential in a whole-body scenario” using an animal model exposed to hyperbaric oxygen (Bagchi et al. 2006). Rats given a bilberry extract (1% w/w in the diet) and subjected to doxorubicin (DOX) toxicity (induced with 15 mg/kg intraperitoneal injection of DOX) had lower lipid peroxides in serum and increased glutathione (GSH) in cardiac muscle cells compared to control animals, although no differences were seen in cardiac lipid peroxide levels (Choi et al. 2010). In mice stressed by restraint, marked increases in liver damage and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels associated with this stress were restored to normal levels by administering a bilberry extract, and there was also enhanced mitochondrial complex II activity, elevated sodium/potassium ATPase activity, and elevated mitochondrial membrane potential with the bilberry treatment (Bao et al. 2010).</p> <p> </p> <p>In contrast to the promising effects seen in animal studies, no effect on lipid peroxidation was seen in human volunteers after supplementation with mixed vegetables and fruits including bilberries (Freese et al. 2004). In general, most controlled human supplementation studies are performed on healthy subjects, and they have limited potential to respond in relation to biomarker changes. Better target groups for looking at antioxidant-related effects are those humans under higher oxidative stress, such as the elderly, those at elevated risk of heart disease, or diabetic patients. To date, there is only one published report of the effects of bilberry supplementation on antioxidant status and oxidative stress in human subjects (Karlsen et al. 2010). Subjects (n = 31) with at least one risk factor for CVD were supplemented with 330 mL/day bilberry juice (diluted to 1 L with water) for 4 weeks. However, results showed no significant changes in biomarkers of antioxidant status or oxidative stress in these subjects, compared to 31 control subjects (Karlsen et al. 2010).</p> <p> </p> <p>Two points of caution are offered here with respect to antioxidant content and action of bilberry anthocyanins. First, many of the bilberry extracts used in trials have not been characterized or standardized to anthocyanin content. Variation in anthocyanin content affects the antioxidant content of extracts. In vitro testing of the antioxidant capacity of commercial bilberry products by our group showed surprising results (Lee 2008). Using the ferric reducing/antioxidant power ability (FRAP) assay (Benzie and Strain 1999), the total antioxidant capacity of 11 commercial powdered bilberry extracts from various countries of origin were tested. Values ranged from &lt;20 to &gt;2000 μmol/g (Lee 2008). There was a strong correlation between the FRAP value and the anthocyanin content (r &gt; .96: p &lt; .001). Interestingly, whereas the anthocyanin content of commercial bilberry products is assumed to be standardized to 250 mg/g, or at least to be high, only 5 of the 11 commercial products had any stated anthocyanin content and 3 of the 5 had stated values of &lt;80 mg/g. Furthermore, the actual anthocyanin content of all but one product was &lt;60 mg/g, with concomitantly low FRAP values (Lee 2008). In one product with a stated content of 250 mg/g anthocyanins, the measured content was &lt;10 mg/g. Second, in vitro antioxidant activity may not reflect in vivo action (Pool- Zobel et al. 1999; Halliwell 2007). Molecular action of antioxidant phytochemicals may be independent of or indirectly related to antioxidant activity, may change with concentration, or may manifest only in the presence of other bioactives or under particular redox conditions (Halliwell and Gutteridge 2007; Packer and Cadenas 2007; Benzie and Wachtel-Galor 2010). Therefore, although anthocyanins are potent antioxidants in vitro, and fresh bilberry is a rich source of these, it cannot be assumed that all commercial bilberry products contain significant amounts of bilberry anthocyanins or that absorbed anthocyanins act directly as antioxidants in vivo. In the future, trials performed with bilberry extracts must use a standardized product of known anthocyanin content, and studies looking for health benefits should include a wide range of biomarkers of both antioxidant and nonantioxidant effects.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>Genoprotective and Anticancer Effects</strong></p> <p>One in three people will receive a diagnosis of cancer at some point in their lives (WCRF 2007). Treatment of cancer is harsh and often unsuccessful. Cancer is a disease caused by mutations in key genes controlling cell division and growth. Damage to DNA increases the likelihood of such mutations, and any bioactive food or component that is found to protect DNA from damaging agents, lower baseline DNA damage, or increase DNA repair is a potential cancer-preventing agent (Collins 1999; Duthie 2007; Halliwell 2007; Kim et al. 2009). Although damage to DNA can be of many types and can result from many different processes and agents, oxidation-induced damage is thought to be a key factor. Chronic inflammation increases ROS load, and it is an important cancer risk factor (Aggarwal, Vijayalekshmi, and Sung 2009). Diet is an important modulator of risk (WCRF 2007; Benzie and Wachtel-Galor 2009; refer to Chapter 17 on herbs and spices in cancer prevention and treatment). Whereas most epidemiological data focus on the potential anticancer activity of mixed fruits and vegetables, few focus on types of individual berry. However, berries do have anticancer potential (Zafra-Stone et al. 2007; Seeram 2009), and there are some data from experimental studies that have used bilberry alone or in conjunction with other berries.</p> <p> </p> <p>In vitro work and animal tumorigenic models have demonstrated that berry anthocyanins have cancer-preventive and -suppressive activity via antioxidant activity; antiproliferative, apoptotic, anti- angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory effects; and induce the antioxidant response element (ARE) with consequent phase II enzyme induction and other cytoprotective effects (Hou 2003; Bagchi et al. 2004; Lala et al. 2006; Duthie 2007; Zafra-Stone et al. 2007; Wang and Stoner 2008; Seeram 2009; Benzie and Wachtel-Galor 2010; Matsunaga et al. 2010). Other mechanisms of genoprotection may involve direct interaction of anthocyanins with DNA. Natural anthocyanins have been reported to intercalate with DNA, forming a DNA copigmentation complex (Sharma and Sharma 1999; Mas et al. 2000; Kong et al. 2003). This triplex stabilization property suggests that anthocyanins could help regulate gene expression in addition to protecting DNA against oxidative damage (Sharma and Sharma 1999; Mas et al. 2000). Anthocyanins have been shown to protect DNA against oxidative stress induced by various agents (UV irradiation, hydrogen peroxide, tert-butyl hydroperoxide) in vitro (Lazzé et al. 2003; Seeram 2008; Svobodová, Zdařilová, and Vostálová 2009). However, it is noted that the doses used (100 μM or greater) for in vitro studies are much higher than values that can be reached in plasma through the dietary intake of anthocyanins. In animal feeding studies, cancer chemopreventive and therapeutic effects of anthocyanins and berries have been shown in various models (Hou 2003; Prior and Wu 2006; Choi et al. 2007; Zafra-Stone et al. 2007; Seeram 2008). Although convincing evidence from well-designed human experimental studies is lacking, there is sufficient robust evidence from in vitro and animal studies of anthocyanins to support clinical studies of cancer chemopreventive effects (Thomasset and Teller et al. 2009).</p> <p> </p> <p>With reference to cancer-related studies that have investigated bilberry specifically, a hexane/ chloroform extract was reported to induce a phase II detoxification enzyme (quinine reductase) in a cell-culture model (Upton 2001). Detoxification of xenobiotics is important for cancer prevention. The extract did not affect the activity of ornithine decarboxylase, an enzyme associated with progression of cancer; but it did inhibit growth of two breast cancer cell lines (Madhavi et al. 1998). Interestingly, a commercial anthocyanin-rich extract from bilberry was shown to inhibit growth of colon cancer cells but did not affect growth of normal colon cells, suggesting a possible specific action against cancer cells (Lala et al. 2006). Among the ethanolic extracts of 10 different berries tested for induction of apoptosis in human cancer cells (HL60 leukemia and HCT116 colon cancer cells), bilberry extract was reported to be the most effective. Interestingly, delphinidin and malvidin aglycone inhibited HL60 cells, whereas delphinidin and its glycoside, but not malvidin and its glycoside, inhibited HCT116 cells (Katsube et al. 2003). Delphinidin is the main anthocyanin in bilberry.</p> <p> </p> <p>In an animal study, the number of intestinal adenoma decreased significantly by 15-30% in rats with genetic colon adenoma that were fed a high dose of bilberry extract (10% w/w in diet, supplying approximately 5.5 g anthocyanin per kilogram per day (Mutanen et al. 2008). Similar findings were shown with a lower dose of a commercial bilberry extract (mirtoselect®, at a daily dose of 0.3% w/w diet, supplying approximately 0.5 g anthocyanin per kilogram per day; Cooke et al. 2006). This dosage is equal to approximately 740 g of fresh bilberries in terms of human intake. More recently, an extract of bilberry was shown to dose-dependently inhibit cell growth and promote induction of apoptosis in cultured breast cancer cells (MCF7-GFP-tubulin breast cancer cells; Nguyen et al. 2010). At higher doses (0.5–1.0 mg/mL), the bilberry extract arrested the cell-cycle at the G(2)/M phase and inhibited microtubule polymerization (Nguyen et al. 2010). In a DNA microarray study, an anti-inflammatory gene activation/inhibition profile was seen in macrophages treated with a bilberry extract (Chen et al. 2008). As noted earlier in this section, inflammation is an important risk factor for cancer. If the molecular evidence for an anti-inflammatory effect of bilberry is confirmed in clinical study, it would support the use of bilberry in cancer prevention. In a pilot study of 25 colorectal cancer patients, an anthocyanin-standardized extract of bilberry (mirtocyan®, supplying between 0.5 and 2 g of anthocyanins per day) was given for 7 days prior to surgery (Thomasset and Berry et al. 2009). After 7 days, bilberry anthocyanins and their glucuronide and methyl metabolites were detected in plasma and also in tumor tissue (179 ng/g tissue at the highest bilberry extract dose), and plasma levels were found to be related to dose. The tumor tissue showed a 7% decrease in proliferation compared to prebilberry values, and there was a small but significant decrease in plasma insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) seen with the lowest dose (Thomasset and Berry et al. 2009). These preliminary data from human study provide important and clear support for further clinical studies of bilberry anthocyanins in cancer chemoprevention.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>Cardioprotective Effects</strong></p> <p>All over the world, CVD is a leading cause of death. Major risk factors of CVD include central obesity, diabetes, hypertension, elevated levels of lipids, and high levels of uric acid. Increased oxidative stress may also contribute, and inflammation is a key factor. Atherosclerosis, the main underlying factor in CVD, is an inflammatory process associated with oxidative processes in and damage to the vascular endothelium (Libby, Ridker, and Maseri 2002). Therefore, the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of anthocyanins are of relevance to potential cardioprotective effects of bilberry and other berries. Antihypertensive, lipid-lowering, hypoglycemic, and antiobesity effects would also be cardioprotective (Zafra-Stone et al. 2007; Erlund et al. 2008).</p> <p> </p> <p>Gene expression in bilberry-treated macrophages stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) showed an anti-inflammatory profile (Chen et al. 2008). Furthermore, a controlled human supplementation trial showed decreased concentration of inflammatory biomarkers in the plasma of 31 subjects who took bilberry juice for 4 weeks (Karlsen et al. 2010) Most notably, significant decreases were seen in plasma levels of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), a sensitive biomarker of subclinical inflammation and a predictor of CVD, and the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin 6 (IL-6). No significant effects were seen on plasma cholesterol, triglycerides, or uric acid concentrations (Karlsen et al. 2010). In an animal study, plasma triglycerides were decreased after feeding rats with an extract of bilberry leaves (3 g/kg/day) for 4 days (Cignarella et al. 1996). However, it is noted that the leaves and not the berries of V. myrtillus L. were used and the effects may not have been related to anthocyanins, which are found mainly in the deeply colored berries. In a controlled human study of 35 subjects who took 100 g of whole bilberries each day, platelet function, blood pressure, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol were all improved (Erlund et al. 2008). However, in addition to the daily bilberry supplement, the subjects took a mixture of various berries during the study. A study of 23 healthy volunteers given a mixture of grape seed, pine bark, bilberry, and red wine for 4 weeks showed an insignificant decrease in acute impairment in endothelial function caused by a high-fat meal (Barringer, Hatcher, and Sasser 2008). In another human study, mixed anthocyanins from bilberry and blackcurrant (Ribes nigram) were given as an extract (320 mg/day) for 12 weeks to 60 middle-aged dyslipidemic Chinese subjects (Qin et al. 2009). Results showed significant improvements in low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol (average decrease of approximately 14%) and HDL-cholesterol (average increase of approximately 14%). No significant changes were seen in plasma total cholesterol, triglycerides, or apolipoproteins, but the plasma concentration of cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) was significantly decreased, and the change in CETP correlated with the changes in lipids. An in vitro study by the same group showed that cyanidin-3-O-glucoside lowered CETP activity in human HepG2 cells, and the researchers concluded that the bilberry and blackberry anthocyanin mixture improved lipids in their human subjects by inhibiting CETP activity and changing cellular cholesterol efflux (Qin et al. 2009).</p> <p> </p> <p>Regarding blood pressure and vascular health, bilberry fruit anthocyanins have been reported (Upton 2001) to inhibit smooth muscle contraction and platelet aggregation. These are potentially antithrombotic and antihypertensive effects and have cardioprotective effects. Possible antihypertensive effects of bilberry are also suggested by the finding of inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) activity in cells in vitro (Persson, Persson, and Andersson 2009). A significant, dose-dependent inhibition of ACE activity was seen in endothelial cells from human umbilical veins that had been incubated in bilberry extract (0.00625–0.1 mg/mL) for 10 minutes (Persson, Persson, and Andersson 2009). Interestingly, individual anthocyanidins (cyanidin, delphinidin, and malvidin) had no inhibitory effect, and the researchers concluded that ACE-inhibition seemed to be dependent on the specific mixture of anthocyanins in bilberry (Persson, Persson, and Andersson 2009). Anthocyanins from bilberry were reported to protect against ischemia reperfusion injury in an animal model, and to attenuate leucocyte adhesion and improve blood perfusion (Bertuglia, Malandrino, and Colantuoni 1995). In rats that were fed bilberry anthocyanins for 12 days prior to inducing hypertension, permeability of the blood-brain barrier was kept normal and there was limited increase in the vascular permeability of the skin and aorta wall (Detre et al. 1986).</p> <p> </p> <p>Anthocyanins and bilberry have also been reported to have antiobesity and hypoglycemic effects, which would bring cardioprotective benefits. These will be discussed in Section 4.5.5.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>Anti-Inflammatory Effects</strong></p> <p>Inflammation is a protective mechanism, but chronic inflammation increases oxidative stress and underlies many age-related diseases, including CVD and cancer (Libby, Ridker, and Maseri 2002; Halliwell and Gutteridge 2007; Aggarwal et al. 2009). Many studies suggest that anthocyanins, the predominant phenolic compounds found in bilberry, have anti-inflammatory effects (Karlsen et al. 2007; Chen et al. 2008; Dreiseitel et al. 2008; Kim et al. 2009). Suggested mechanisms include inhibiting proteasome activity, which controls the degradation of cellular proteins (Dreiseitel et al. 2008), and inhibiting nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) activation, which controls expression of genes involved in the inflammatory response (Karlsen et al. 2007; Chen et al. 2008). Supplementation with Medox (a commercial product of purified anthocyanins from bilberries supplying 300 mg of anthocyanins) by healthy subjects for 3 weeks was associated with a decrease in several NFκB-regulated proinflammatory chemokines and immunoregulatory cytokines (Karlsen et al. 2007), and a follow-up study showed decreased levels of hsCRP and inflammatory cytokines in plasma of 31 subjects who took 330 mL/day of bilberry juice for 4 weeks (Karlsen et al. 2010). As oxidative stress may mediate inflammation injury, the antioxidant properties of bilberry may be responsible for at least some of the anti-inflammatory effects reported. However, selective gene activation and inhibition by mechanisms other than direct antioxidant effects are likely (Chen et al. 2008; Benzie and Wachtel-Galor 2010).</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>Hypoglycemic Effects</strong></p> <p>The bilberry plant is reputed to possess antidiabetic properties, and its berries and leaves (as well as those of other Vaccinium species) have been used for centuries to ameliorate the symptoms of diabetes (Cignarella et al. 1996; Martineau et al. 2006; Ghosh and Konishi 2007; Cravotto et al. 2010). In a survey of 685 Italian herbalists, bilberry ranked fourth in a list of herbal remedies recommended for improvement of glycemic control (Cicero, Derosa, and Gaddi 2004). The reported hypoglycemic effect of bilberry is a desirable effect for helping to prevent or control type 2 diabetes, which is a highly prevalent condition caused by insulin resistance and B cell failure (ADA 2010). Type 2 diabetes is associated with increased oxidative stress, inflammation, and dyslipidemia, and is accompanied by an increased risk of CVD, cancer, and vision loss through cataract and retinopathy (Brownlee 2005; Jee et al. 2005; Choi et al. 2008; ADA 2010).</p> <p> </p> <p>The hypoglycemic effect of bilberry may be mediated in part by interference with enzyme action, especially α-glucosidase activity (McDougall, Kulkarni, and Stewart 2008), and also by effects on insulin secretion and glucose transport. Anthocyanins were found to stimulate insulin secretion from cultured rodent pancreatic B cells, with cyanidins and delphinidins (the major anthocyanins in bilberry) showing the greatest effect among different anthocyanins tested (Jayaprakasam et al. 2005). In addition, low-bush blueberry, which belongs to the same family as bilberry, at 12.5 μg/mL was demonstrated to enhance glucose transport into muscle cells and adipocytes in the absence of insulin (Martineau et al. 2006).</p> <p> </p> <p>In an animal study with a water-alcohol extract of bilberry leaves given to streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice (3 g/kg/day for 4 days), a significant decrease (26%) was seen in plasma glucose (Cignarella et al. 1996). Blood glucose was significantly decreased (by 33% and 51%, respectively) after administration of a phenolic-rich extract (containing approximately 287 mg/g anthocyanin) and an anthocyanin-enriched fraction (containing approximately 595 mg/g) from a Vaccinium blueberry extract at a dose 500 mg/kg to diabetic (C57b1/6J) mice (Grace et al. 2009). In gavage treatment with pure anthocyanins (300 mg/kg), malividin-3-O-glucoside was found to have a significant hypoglycemic effect in these animals, but delphinidin-3-O-glucoside did not (Grace et al. 2009). As shown in Table 4.1, the malvidin-3-O-glucoside concentration of bilberry is 3.35% (Upton 2001). Significant decreases in serum glucose and fructosamine were shown in alloxan-induced diabetic mice at, respectively, 120 minutes and 7 days after being given a 20 mg/kg dose of “antidiabetis", an herbal preparation that included bilberry (Petlevski et al. 2001).</p> <p> </p> <p>Obesity is a strong predisposing factor for type 2 diabetes. Berry polyphenols may help prevent obesity by inhibiting digestive enzymes, such as lipase, thereby lowering fat absorption (McDougall, Kulkarni, and Stewart 2008). Cyanidin-3-glucoside has been shown to suppress the development of obesity in mice fed a high-fat diet and to regulate human adipocyte function (Tsuda 2008). Human preadipocytes were collected from subcutaneous adipose tissue, cultured, and differentiated into adipocytes before being treated with anthocyanins for 24 hours. Adiponectin, an anti-inflammatory cytokine, was upregulated, and there was downregulation of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-6 and also of the plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1); the anthocyanin treatment also activated adenosine monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in adipocytes without increasing the AMP/adenosine triphosphate (ATP) ratio (Tsuda 2008). Together, these changes indicate a role for anthocyanins in preventing metabolic syndrome, an increasingly common condition associated with insulin resistance, hypertension, and dyslipidemia that often progresses to type 2 diabetes. In a follow-up study, Tsuda and coworkers reported that a bilberry extract added to the diet of diabetic mice (27 g/kg diet, which gave an anthocyanin content of 10 g/kg diet) lowered serum glucose and improved insulin sensitivity (Takikawa et al. 2009). There were no differences in body weight or serum adiponectin levels between the bilberryfed and the control animals, but the antidiabetic effects of the bilberry extract were associated with AMPK activation in white adipose tissue and skeletal muscle and liver, and were accompanied by increased glucose transporter 4 (GLUT 4) in white adipose and skeletal tissue and lower hepatic gluconeogenesis (Takikawa et al. 2009).</p> <p> </p> <p>Although there are some published human studies of the hypoglycemic effects of berries (e.g., cranberry, chokeberry), strong evidence from human trials is lacking (Matsui et al. 2006; Helmstädter and Schuster 2010). To our knowledge, there are no published controlled human studies with bilberry on diabetes patients. The two published human supplementation studies with bilberry (Qin et al. 2009; Karlsen et al. 2010) studied subjects at elevated risk of CVD, but they were not diabetic. It is unlikely that significant effects of bilberry would be seen in subjects with normal glucose tolerance No differences were seen in plasma glucose levels in 60 nondiabetic dyslipidemic subjects who took a mixed bilberry and blackcurrant anthocyanins supplement (120 mg/day anthocyanins) for 12 weeks (Qin et al. 2009). In the study by Karlsen et al. (2010), which investigated the effect of 4 weeks of supplementation with 330 mL/day of bilberry juice in subjects with at least one risk factor for CVD, no glucose data were shown.</p> <p>Although we lack human data on the antidiabetic effects of bilberry, numerous in vitro and animal studies provide good evidence of a role for bilberry in treating or preventing type 2 diabetes. This could be a very rewarding area of future research given the huge socioeconomic problem posed by this highly prevalent disease. In addition to the clear benefits that would come from increasing insulin secretion and glucose transport, other effects of bilberry, such as its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and lipid-lowering effects, would help delay the serious vascular complications of diabetes. Controlling obesity would help prevent many cases of type 2 diabetes. Also, there is increasing evidence of increased risk of cancer with hyperglycemia to hyperglycemia (Jee et al. 2005; Stocks et al. 2009). The Metabolic Syndrome and Cancer (Me-Can) Project is a large prospective study of six European cohorts, with a total of over 500,000 subjects, and after an average follow-up of 10.4 years, results strongly support high blood glucose as a risk factor for incident cancer at many specific sites and for cancer death (Stocks et al. 2009). Oxidative stress, inflammation, and increased amounts of growth factors, including IGF-1, also increase cancer risk and are high in those with type 2 diabetes. The combination of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hypoglycemic effects of an herb or a functional food would bring significant long-term benefits, particularly to those with type 2 diabetes, and studies of bilberry focusing on these effects in this group are warranted.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>Ocular Effects</strong></p> <p>Bilberry has a long history of use for eye disorders and in promoting vision. There have been numerous studies of the effects of bilberry on various aspects of vision and ocular disorders, including cataract, retinopathy, macular degeneration, and night vision (reviewed by Camire 2000; Upton 2001; Canter and Ernst 2004; Ghosh and Konishi 2007; Zafra-Stone et al. 2007). Many studies have shown positive effects, including improvement in retinal abnormalities, increased capillary resistance, slowing of progression of lens opacity and myopia, and improved dark adaptation. For example, in a study of 50 patients with mild senile cataract, 4 months of supplementation with bilberry anthocyanins plus vitamin E was reported to have a 97% success rate in preventing cataract progression (Bravetti, Fraboni, and Maccolini 1989). A double-blinded, placebo-controlled study reported that in six subjects who were given bilberry anthocyanins, dark adaptation at 1 hour and hours postingestion was faster (6.5 minutes) compared to six control subjects (9 minutes; reviewed by Zafra-Stone et al. 2007). However these, and many other, studies, were small; used mixed supplements, such as bilberry plus other berries or bilberry combined with vitamin E; or were uncontrolled. Canter and Ernst (2004) reviewed 30 published trials of bilberry-extracted anthocyanins on lowered light and night vision. Only 12 of the 30 studies were placebo controlled, and the conclusion was that there was insufficient rigorous evidence to recommend the use of bilberry for improving night vision (Canter and Ernst 2004).</p> <p> </p> <p>Nevertheless, there is supporting scientific evidence of beneficial effects of bilberry in relation to ocular disorders and vision loss. A study by Jang et al. (2005) showed that a bilberry extract (100 μM anthocyanins) protected against photooxidation of pyridinium disretinoid A2E, an autofluorescence pigment that mediates a detergent-like disturbance of cell membranes and light-induced damage to cells, and that the effects were due at least in part to the quenching of singlet oxygen. Milbury et al. (2007) showed that bilberry anthocyanins (1 mg/mL) modulated the oxidative stress defense enzymes heme oxygenase-1 (HO)-1 and glutathione-S-transferase-pi (GST-pi) in retinal pigment epithelial cells that were preincubated with anthocyanin extract before H2O2 challenge. Song et al. (2010) studied the effect of bilberry extract on cultured corneal limbal epithelial cells and showed that bilberry promoted physiological renewal and homeostasis of these cells. A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled study showed that symptoms of asthenopia and contrast sensitivity for 22 of the 30 subjects studied (73%) improved significantly after 4 weeks of 100 mg/day of purified anthocyanin (85% anthocyanoside oligomers; Lee et al. 2005). In a study with cultured retinal ganglion cells, bilberry anthocyanosides inhibited chemical-induced cell damage and radical activation, and this neuroprotective effect, which may have been an antioxidant-related effect, was also seen in vivo when bilberry anthocyanosides (100 μg/eye) were injected into the vitreous of mice (Matsunaga et al. 2009).</p> <p> </p> <p>Age-related vision loss, mainly due to senile cataract and macular degeneration, affects the quality of life of virtually all elderly persons. Diabetic retinopathy is highly prevalent in those who have had diabetes for 10 or more years and is a leading cause of blindness in developed countries. There is sufficient evidence from animal and cell-culture studies and small human trials to warrant more powerful, controlled human trials of bilberry in helping to address the huge clinical problem of age and diabetes-related vision loss.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>Neuroprotective Effects</strong></p> <p>The phenomenon of age-related degenerative diseases leading to cognitive decline is common and relentless. Stroke, whether triggered primarily by hypertension or thrombosis, is a major cause of death and disability. The vasodilatory and anti-inflammatory effects of bilberry can be expected to have significant effects in relation to the preservation of cognition and neuromotor function through lowered risk of both hemorrhagic and thrombotic strokes. Furthermore, neuronal tissue, including the retina, is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acid, and the antioxidant properties of anthocyanins may protect these oxidation-susceptible sites and, thereby, preserve brain and retinal function, although it is not yet clear whether anthocyanins are taken up by brain tissue. Berry fruits and fruit polyphenols have been reported to be neuroprotective, enhance dopamine release, and improve neuronal communication (Zafra-Stone et al. 2007; Matsunaga et al. 2009; Shukitt-Hale, Lau, and Joseph 2009). A commercial bilberry extract (Myrtocyan® at 200 mg/kg daily for 5 days by intraperitoneal administration) given to rats was reported to increase triiodothyronine transport to different regions of the brain, and bilberry is reported to promote short-term memory, vision, and control of sensory input in animals (Saija et al. 1990; Cignarella et al. 1996; Prior and Wu 2006; Zafra-Stone et al. 2007). However, most studies on the neuroprotective effects of berries and their constituents have been performed on cultured cells and in animals, and cognition-related studies using bilberry specifically are lacking.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>Antimicrobial Effects</strong></p> <p>Antimicrobial effects of herbs and natural products can be via inhibition of bacterial binding (adhesion) to cell walls, direct antimicrobial killing, or by effects that potentiate antibiotics, as evidenced by lowered minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of antibiotics in the presence of an herb compared to that of the antibiotic alone. Several natural products have been found to have antimicrobial effects (Lee et al. 2006). Cranberry (V. macrocarpon Ait.) has powerful antiadhesion properties and is widely used to prevent infections of the urinary tract (see Chapter 6 on cranberry). Other researchers have reported the antiadhesion effects of berries on Helicobacter pylori, and also that berry extracts increase the antimicrobial effects of the antibiotic clarithromycin against H. pylori (Chatterjee et al. 2004).</p> <p> </p> <p>Bilberry and other berry fruits, as well as purified berry phenolics, have been reported to show direct antimicrobial effects against human pathogens, including Salmonella and Staphylococcus aureus (Puupponen-Pimiä et al. 2005a,b). Interestingly, pure phenolic compounds (as opposed to berry extracts) were found to inhibit only gram-negative bacteria (which include Salmonella species and Escherichia coli), and the effects were related to the degree of hydroxylation of the pure phenolic compounds (Puupponen-Pimiä et al. 2005a,b). Berry extracts were found to inhibit those affected by the pure phenolic compounds; further, extracts inhibited the growth of not only H. pylori but also Bacillus, Clostridium, and Staphylococcus, which are gram-positive organisms. Therefore, whole berries or extracts of whole berries may be more effective as antimicrobials than purified extracts. The effects of various berries against various organisms are different. For example, cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus) showed a bactericidal effect on S. aureus, whereas bilberry had a bacteriostatic effect (Puupponen-Pimiä et al. 2005a). The antimicrobial effects of bilberry against Salmonella and Staphylococcus were increased by enzymatic treatment of the fruit mash, which increased phenolic release into the berry juice; however, there may also have been structural changes to the berry components during treatment (Puupponen-Pimiä et al. 2005a,b). In a recent study of wild berries, bilberry juice inhibited adhesion of Streptococcus pneumoniae to human bronchial (Calu-3) cells, and bilberry juice also inhibited growth of S. pneumoniae, although the effects of bilberry were less than those of cranberry (Huttunen et al. 2010).</p> <p> </p> <p>The findings of antimicrobial effects in herbs and other natural products is important and timely, not least because of the new infectious diseases arising in recent years. S. pneumoniae is the major cause of meningitis, otitis media, and pneumonia. The presence of various pathogens in food and water is common and their toxic consequences can be severe. Antibiotic resistance in microbes is a serious and increasing problem; moreover, the immune system declines with age and our populations are aging. Bilberry has a clear potential value as an antimicrobial agent. In a preliminary study conducted by our group, bilberry showed a direct effect against methicillin-resistant S. aureas (MRSA), with an MIC of 1.2 mg/mL for bilberry extract alone. Furthermore, the effect of vancomycin against MRSA strains was potentiated. In the presence of 0.6-mg/mL bilberry extract, the MIC for vancomycin was decreased from 1.8 to 0.7 μg/mL. These are interesting and potentially important findings for the use of bilberry in treating antibiotic-resistant organisms.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>CONCLUSION</strong></p> <p>Throughout history, berries have been an important and valued part of the human diet. Berries contain many components, but anthocyanins, the phenolic compounds that give berries their red, blue, and purple colors, have been found to have a wide range of health-related properties, including antioxidant, antitumorigenic, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, and antimicrobial effects. Bilberry is rich in anthocyanins, especially delphinidins and cyanidins. There is supporting evidence that these compounds are bioavailable and bioactive. Molecular effects that have been demonstrated in experimental studies and their clinical implications for human health are summarized in Figure 4.2. However, well-designed human trials using standardized extracts of bilberry are needed to provide the level and variety of clinical evidence that will translate current molecular insights and understanding into clear recommendations for bilberry as a possible tool to combat chronic and infectious diseases in our aging populations.</p> <p> </p> <p><img src="http://www.si-seeds.com/img/cms/Lichtkeimer%20EN1.png" alt="" width="492" height="208" /></p>

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